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These sample circuits can be accessed from the <b>Circuits</b> menu.
<p>

<ul type=disc>
 <li class=MsoNormal style='mso-margin-top-alt:auto;mso-margin-bottom-alt:auto;
     mso-list:l2 level1 lfo1;tab-stops:list .5in'><b><span style='mso-fareast-font-family:
     "Times New Roman"'>Basics</span></b><span style='mso-fareast-font-family:
     "Times New Roman"'><o:p></o:p></span></li>
 <ul type=circle>
  <li class=MsoNormal style='mso-margin-top-alt:auto;mso-margin-bottom-alt:
      auto;mso-list:l2 level2 lfo1;tab-stops:list 1.0in'><b><span
      style='mso-fareast-font-family:"Times New Roman"'>Resistors</span></b><span
      style='mso-fareast-font-family:"Times New Roman"'>: this shows some
      resistors of various sizes in series and parallel.<o:p></o:p></span></li>
  <li class=MsoNormal style='mso-margin-top-alt:auto;mso-margin-bottom-alt:
      auto;mso-list:l2 level2 lfo1;tab-stops:list 1.0in'><b><span
      style='mso-fareast-font-family:"Times New Roman"'>Capacitor</span></b><span
      style='mso-fareast-font-family:"Times New Roman"'>: this shows a
      capacitor that you can charge and discharge by clicking on the switch.<o:p></o:p></span></li>
  <li class=MsoNormal style='mso-margin-top-alt:auto;mso-margin-bottom-alt:
      auto;mso-list:l2 level2 lfo1;tab-stops:list 1.0in'><b><span
      style='mso-fareast-font-family:"Times New Roman"'>Inductor</span></b><span
      style='mso-fareast-font-family:"Times New Roman"'>: this shows an
      inductor that you can charge and discharge by clicking on the switch.<o:p></o:p></span></li>
  <li class=MsoNormal style='mso-margin-top-alt:auto;mso-margin-bottom-alt:
      auto;mso-list:l2 level2 lfo1;tab-stops:list 1.0in'><b><span
      style='mso-fareast-font-family:"Times New Roman"'><a
      href="http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/electric/serres.html#c1">LRC
      Circuit</a></span></b><span style='mso-fareast-font-family:"Times New Roman"'>:
      this shows an oscillating circuit with an inductor, resistor, and
      capacitor.<span style='mso-spacerun:yes'>  </span>You can close the
      switch to get current moving in the inductor, and then open the switch to
      see the oscillation.<b><o:p></o:p></b></span></li>
  <li class=MsoNormal style='mso-margin-top-alt:auto;mso-margin-bottom-alt:
      auto;mso-list:l2 level2 lfo1;tab-stops:list 1.0in'><b><span
      style='mso-fareast-font-family:"Times New Roman"'><a
      href="http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/electric/voldiv.html">Voltage
      Divider</a></span></b><span style='mso-fareast-font-family:"Times New Roman"'>:
      this shows a voltage divider, which generates a reference voltage of
      7.5V, 5V, and 2.5V from the 10V power supply.<b><o:p></o:p></b></span></li>
  <li class=MsoNormal style='mso-margin-top-alt:auto;mso-margin-bottom-alt:
      auto;mso-list:l2 level2 lfo1;tab-stops:list 1.0in'><b><span
      style='mso-fareast-font-family:"Times New Roman"'><a
      href="http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/electric/thevenin.html">Thevenin’s
      Theorem</a> </span></b><span style='mso-fareast-font-family:"Times New Roman"'>states
      that the circuit on top is equivalent to the circuit on the bottom.<b><o:p></o:p></b></span></li>
  <li class=MsoNormal style='mso-margin-top-alt:auto;mso-margin-bottom-alt:
      auto;mso-list:l2 level2 lfo1;tab-stops:list 1.0in'><b><span
      style='mso-fareast-font-family:"Times New Roman"'><a
      href="http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/electric/norton.html">Norton’s
      Theorem</a> </span></b><span style='mso-fareast-font-family:"Times New Roman"'>states
      that the circuit on top is equivalent to the circuit on the bottom.<b><o:p></o:p></b></span></li>
 </ul>
 <li class=MsoNormal style='mso-margin-top-alt:auto;mso-margin-bottom-alt:auto;
     mso-list:l2 level1 lfo1;tab-stops:list .5in'><b><span style='mso-fareast-font-family:
     "Times New Roman"'>A/C Circuits<o:p></o:p></span></b></li>
 <ul type=circle>
  <li class=MsoNormal style='mso-margin-top-alt:auto;mso-margin-bottom-alt:
      auto;mso-list:l2 level2 lfo1;tab-stops:list 1.0in'><b><span
      style='mso-fareast-font-family:"Times New Roman"'><a
      href="http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/electric/accap.html#c1">Capacitor</a></span></b><span
      style='mso-fareast-font-family:"Times New Roman"'>: this shows a
      capacitor connected to an alternating voltage source.<b><o:p></o:p></b></span></li>
  <li class=MsoNormal style='mso-margin-top-alt:auto;mso-margin-bottom-alt:
      auto;mso-list:l2 level2 lfo1;tab-stops:list 1.0in'><b><span
      style='mso-fareast-font-family:"Times New Roman"'><a
      href="http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/electric/acind.html#c1">Inductor</a><o:p></o:p></span></b></li>
  <li class=MsoNormal style='mso-margin-top-alt:auto;mso-margin-bottom-alt:
      auto;mso-list:l2 level2 lfo1;tab-stops:list 1.0in'><b><span
      style='mso-fareast-font-family:"Times New Roman"'>Caps of Various
      Capacitances</span></b><span style='mso-fareast-font-family:"Times New Roman"'>:
      shows the response of three different capacitors to the same frequency.<b><o:p></o:p></b></span></li>
  <li class=MsoNormal style='mso-margin-top-alt:auto;mso-margin-bottom-alt:
      auto;mso-list:l2 level2 lfo1;tab-stops:list 1.0in'><b><span
      style='mso-fareast-font-family:"Times New Roman"'>Caps w/ Various
      Frequencies</span></b><span style='mso-fareast-font-family:"Times New Roman"'>:
      shows the response of three equal capacitors to three different
      frequencies; the higher the frequency, the larger the current.<b><o:p></o:p></b></span></li>
  <li class=MsoNormal style='mso-margin-top-alt:auto;mso-margin-bottom-alt:
      auto;mso-list:l2 level2 lfo1;tab-stops:list 1.0in'><b><span
      style='mso-fareast-font-family:"Times New Roman"'>Inductors of Various
      Inductances</span></b><span style='mso-fareast-font-family:"Times New Roman"'>:
      shows the response of three different inductors to the same frequency.<b><o:p></o:p></b></span></li>
  <li class=MsoNormal style='mso-margin-top-alt:auto;mso-margin-bottom-alt:
      auto;mso-list:l2 level2 lfo1;tab-stops:list 1.0in'><b><span
      style='mso-fareast-font-family:"Times New Roman"'>Inductors w/ Various
      Frequencies</span></b><span style='mso-fareast-font-family:"Times New Roman"'>:
      shows the response of three equal inductors to three different
      frequencies: the lower the frequency, the larger the current.<b><o:p></o:p></b></span></li>
  <li class=MsoNormal style='mso-margin-top-alt:auto;mso-margin-bottom-alt:
      auto;mso-list:l2 level2 lfo1;tab-stops:list 1.0in'><b><span
      style='mso-fareast-font-family:"Times New Roman"'>Impedances of Same
      Magnitude</span></b><span style='mso-fareast-font-family:"Times New Roman"'>:
      shows a capacitor, an inductor, and a resistor that have impedances of
      equal magnitude (but different phase).<span style='mso-spacerun:yes'> 
      </span>The peak current is the same in all three cases.<b><o:p></o:p></b></span></li>
  <li class=MsoNormal style='mso-margin-top-alt:auto;mso-margin-bottom-alt:
      auto;mso-list:l2 level2 lfo1;tab-stops:list 1.0in'><b><span
      style='mso-fareast-font-family:"Times New Roman"'><a
      href="http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/electric/serres.html#c2">Series
      Resonance</a></span></b><span style='mso-fareast-font-family:"Times New Roman"'>:
      shows three identical LRC circuits being driven by three different
      frequencies.<span style='mso-spacerun:yes'>  </span>The middle one is
      being driven at the resonance frequency (shown in the lower right corner
      of the screen as “res.f”).<span style='mso-spacerun:yes'>  </span>The top
      one is being driven at a slightly lower frequency, and the bottom one has
      a slightly higher frequency.<span style='mso-spacerun:yes'>  </span>The
      peak voltage in the middle circuit is very high because it is resonating
      with the source.<b><o:p></o:p></b></span></li>
  <li class=MsoNormal style='mso-margin-top-alt:auto;mso-margin-bottom-alt:
      auto;mso-list:l2 level2 lfo1;tab-stops:list 1.0in'><b><span
      style='mso-fareast-font-family:"Times New Roman"'><a
      href="http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/electric/parres.html#c1">Parallel
      Resonance</a></span></b><span style='mso-fareast-font-family:"Times New Roman"'>:
      these three circuits have the inductor, resistor, and capacitor in
      parallel instead of series.<span style='mso-spacerun:yes'>  </span>In this
      case, the middle circuit is being driven at resonance, which causes the
      current there to be lower than in the other two cases (because the
      impedance of the circuit is highest at resonance).<o:p></o:p></span></li>
 </ul>
 <li class=MsoNormal style='mso-margin-top-alt:auto;mso-margin-bottom-alt:auto;
     mso-list:l2 level1 lfo1;tab-stops:list .5in'><b><span style='mso-fareast-font-family:
     "Times New Roman"'>Passive Filters<o:p></o:p></span></b></li>
 <ul type=circle>
  <li class=MsoNormal style='mso-margin-top-alt:auto;mso-margin-bottom-alt:
      auto;mso-list:l2 level2 lfo1;tab-stops:list 1.0in'><b><span
      style='mso-fareast-font-family:"Times New Roman"'><a
      href="http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/electric/filcap.html">High-Pass
      Filter (RC)<span style='font-weight:normal'>.</span></a><span
      style='mso-spacerun:yes'>  </span></span></b><span style='mso-fareast-font-family:
      "Times New Roman"'>The original signal is shown at the lower left, and
      the filtered signal (with the low-frequency part removed) is shown to the
      right.<span style='mso-spacerun:yes'>  </span>The breakpoint (-3 dB
      point) is shown at the lower right, as “f.3db”.<o:p></o:p></span></li>
  <li class=MsoNormal style='mso-margin-top-alt:auto;mso-margin-bottom-alt:
      auto;mso-list:l2 level2 lfo1;tab-stops:list 1.0in'><b><span
      style='mso-fareast-font-family:"Times New Roman"'><a
      href="http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/electric/filcap2.html#c1">Low-Pass
      Filter (RC).</a></span></b><span style='mso-fareast-font-family:"Times New Roman"'><o:p></o:p></span></li>
  <li class=MsoNormal style='mso-margin-top-alt:auto;mso-margin-bottom-alt:
      auto;mso-list:l2 level2 lfo1;tab-stops:list 1.0in'><b><span
      style='mso-fareast-font-family:"Times New Roman"'>High-Pass Filter (RL).</span></b><span
      style='mso-fareast-font-family:"Times New Roman"'><span
      style='mso-spacerun:yes'>  </span>This high-pass filter uses an inductor
      rather than a capacitor.<o:p></o:p></span></li>
  <li class=MsoNormal style='mso-margin-top-alt:auto;mso-margin-bottom-alt:
      auto;mso-list:l2 level2 lfo1;tab-stops:list 1.0in'><b><span
      style='mso-fareast-font-family:"Times New Roman"'>Low-Pass Filter (RL). </span></b><span
      style='mso-fareast-font-family:"Times New Roman"'><o:p></o:p></span></li>
  <li class=MsoNormal style='mso-margin-top-alt:auto;mso-margin-bottom-alt:
      auto;mso-list:l2 level2 lfo1;tab-stops:list 1.0in'><b><span
      style='mso-fareast-font-family:"Times New Roman"'>Band-Pass Filter</span></b><span
      style='mso-fareast-font-family:"Times New Roman"'>: this filter passes a
      range of frequencies close to the resonance frequency (shown at the lower
      right, as “res.f”).<o:p></o:p></span></li>
  <li class=MsoNormal style='mso-margin-top-alt:auto;mso-margin-bottom-alt:
      auto;mso-list:l2 level2 lfo1;tab-stops:list 1.0in'><b><span
      style='mso-fareast-font-family:"Times New Roman"'>Notch Filter</span></b><span
      style='mso-fareast-font-family:"Times New Roman"'>: Also known as a
      band-stop filter, this circuit filters out a range of frequencies close
      to the resonance frequency.<o:p></o:p></span></li>
  <li class=MsoNormal style='mso-margin-top-alt:auto;mso-margin-bottom-alt:
      auto;mso-list:l2 level2 lfo1;tab-stops:list 1.0in'><b><span
      style='mso-fareast-font-family:"Times New Roman"'>Twin-T Filter</span></b><span
      style='mso-fareast-font-family:"Times New Roman"'>: This filter does a
      very good job of filtering out 60 Hz signals.<b><o:p></o:p></b></span></li>
  <li class=MsoNormal style='mso-margin-top-alt:auto;mso-margin-bottom-alt:
      auto;mso-list:l2 level2 lfo1;tab-stops:list 1.0in'><b><span
      style='mso-fareast-font-family:"Times New Roman"'>Crossover: </span></b><span
      style='mso-fareast-font-family:"Times New Roman"'><span
      style='mso-spacerun:yes'> </span>A set of three filters; the top one
      passes low frequencies, the middle one passes midrange, and the bottom
      one passes high frequencies.<b><o:p></o:p></b></span></li>
 </ul>
 <li class=MsoNormal style='mso-margin-top-alt:auto;mso-margin-bottom-alt:auto;
     mso-list:l2 level1 lfo1;tab-stops:list .5in'><b><span style='mso-fareast-font-family:
     "Times New Roman"'>Other Passive Circuits<o:p></o:p></span></b></li>
 <ul type=circle>
  <li class=MsoNormal style='mso-margin-top-alt:auto;mso-margin-bottom-alt:
      auto;mso-list:l2 level2 lfo1;tab-stops:list 1.0in'><b><span
      style='mso-fareast-font-family:"Times New Roman"'>Series/Parallel<o:p></o:p></span></b></li>
  <ol start=1 type=1>
   <li class=MsoNormal style='mso-margin-top-alt:auto;mso-margin-bottom-alt:
       auto;mso-list:l2 level3 lfo1;tab-stops:list 1.5in'><b><span
       style='mso-fareast-font-family:"Times New Roman"'>Inductors in Series</span></b><span
       style='mso-fareast-font-family:"Times New Roman"'>.<span
       style='mso-spacerun:yes'>  </span>The circuit at left is equivalent to
       the circuit at right.<b><o:p></o:p></b></span></li>
   <li class=MsoNormal style='mso-margin-top-alt:auto;mso-margin-bottom-alt:
       auto;mso-list:l2 level3 lfo1;tab-stops:list 1.5in'><b><span
       style='mso-fareast-font-family:"Times New Roman"'>Inductors in Parallel.<o:p></o:p></span></b></li>
   <li class=MsoNormal style='mso-margin-top-alt:auto;mso-margin-bottom-alt:
       auto;mso-list:l2 level3 lfo1;tab-stops:list 1.5in'><b><span
       style='mso-fareast-font-family:"Times New Roman"'>Caps in Series.<o:p></o:p></span></b></li>
   <li class=MsoNormal style='mso-margin-top-alt:auto;mso-margin-bottom-alt:
       auto;mso-list:l2 level3 lfo1;tab-stops:list 1.5in'><b><span
       style='mso-fareast-font-family:"Times New Roman"'>Caps in Parallel.<o:p></o:p></span></b></li>
  </ol>
  <li class=MsoNormal style='mso-margin-top-alt:auto;mso-margin-bottom-alt:
      auto;mso-list:l2 level2 lfo1;tab-stops:list 1.0in'><b><span
      style='mso-fareast-font-family:"Times New Roman"'>Transformers<o:p></o:p></span></b></li>
  <ol start=1 type=1>
   <li class=MsoNormal style='mso-margin-top-alt:auto;mso-margin-bottom-alt:
       auto;mso-list:l2 level3 lfo1;tab-stops:list 1.5in'><b><span
       style='mso-fareast-font-family:"Times New Roman"'><a
       href="http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/magnetic/transf.html#c1">Transformer</a>:
       </span></b><span style='mso-fareast-font-family:"Times New Roman"'>A
       basic transformer circuit with an equal number of windings in each coil.<b><o:p></o:p></b></span></li>
   <li class=MsoNormal style='mso-margin-top-alt:auto;mso-margin-bottom-alt:
       auto;mso-list:l2 level3 lfo1;tab-stops:list 1.5in'><b><span
       style='mso-fareast-font-family:"Times New Roman"'>Transformer w/ DC: </span></b><span
       style='mso-fareast-font-family:"Times New Roman"'>Here we try to pass a
       DC current through a transformer.<b><o:p></o:p></b></span></li>
   <li class=MsoNormal style='mso-margin-top-alt:auto;mso-margin-bottom-alt:
       auto;mso-list:l2 level3 lfo1;tab-stops:list 1.5in'><b><span
       style='mso-fareast-font-family:"Times New Roman"'>Step-Up Transformer: </span></b><span
       style='mso-fareast-font-family:"Times New Roman"'>Here we step 10 V up
       to 100 V.<b><o:p></o:p></b></span></li>
   <li class=MsoNormal style='mso-margin-top-alt:auto;mso-margin-bottom-alt:
       auto;mso-list:l2 level3 lfo1;tab-stops:list 1.5in'><b><span
       style='mso-fareast-font-family:"Times New Roman"'>Step-Down Transformer:
       </span></b><span style='mso-fareast-font-family:"Times New Roman"'>Here
       we step 120 V down to 12 V.<b><o:p></o:p></b></span></li>
  </ol>
  <li class=MsoNormal style='mso-margin-top-alt:auto;mso-margin-bottom-alt:
      auto;mso-list:l2 level2 lfo1;tab-stops:list 1.0in'><b><span
      style='mso-fareast-font-family:"Times New Roman"'>3-Way Light Switches</span></b><span
      style='mso-fareast-font-family:"Times New Roman"'>: shows how a light
      bulb can be turned on and off from two locations.<b><o:p></o:p></b></span></li>
  <li class=MsoNormal style='mso-margin-top-alt:auto;mso-margin-bottom-alt:
      auto;mso-list:l2 level2 lfo1;tab-stops:list 1.0in'><b><span
      style='mso-fareast-font-family:"Times New Roman"'>3- and 4-Way Light
      Switches</span></b><span style='mso-fareast-font-family:"Times New Roman"'>:
      shows how a light bulb can be turned on and off from three locations.<b><o:p></o:p></b></span></li>
  <li class=MsoNormal style='mso-margin-top-alt:auto;mso-margin-bottom-alt:
      auto;mso-list:l2 level2 lfo1;tab-stops:list 1.0in'><b><span
      style='mso-fareast-font-family:"Times New Roman"'>Differentiator</span></b><span
      style='mso-fareast-font-family:"Times New Roman"'>: shows how a capacitor
      can act as a differentiator, reflecting changes in voltage.<b><o:p></o:p></b></span></li>
  <li class=MsoNormal style='mso-margin-top-alt:auto;mso-margin-bottom-alt:
      auto;mso-list:l2 level2 lfo1;tab-stops:list 1.0in'><b><span
      style='mso-fareast-font-family:"Times New Roman"'><a
      href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wheatstone_bridge">Wheatstone Bridge</a></span></b><span
      style='mso-fareast-font-family:"Times New Roman"'>: shows a balanced
      Wheatstone bridge.<span style='mso-spacerun:yes'>  </span>If the bridge
      were not balanced, current would be flowing across from one leg to the other.<b><o:p></o:p></b></span></li>
  <li class=MsoNormal style='mso-margin-top-alt:auto;mso-margin-bottom-alt:
      auto;mso-list:l2 level2 lfo1;tab-stops:list 1.0in'><b><span
      style='mso-fareast-font-family:"Times New Roman"'><a
      href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/RLC_circuit">Critically Damped LRC</a>.<o:p></o:p></span></b></li>
  <li class=MsoNormal style='mso-margin-top-alt:auto;mso-margin-bottom-alt:
      auto;mso-list:l2 level2 lfo1;tab-stops:list 1.0in'><b><span
      style='mso-fareast-font-family:"Times New Roman"'>Current Source</span></b><span
      style='mso-fareast-font-family:"Times New Roman"'>: shows a source that
      keeps the current through the circuit constant regardless of the switch
      positions.<b><o:p></o:p></b></span></li>
  <li class=MsoNormal style='mso-margin-top-alt:auto;mso-margin-bottom-alt:
      auto;mso-list:l2 level2 lfo1;tab-stops:list 1.0in'><b><span
      style='mso-fareast-font-family:"Times New Roman"'>Inductive Kickback</span></b><span
      style='mso-fareast-font-family:"Times New Roman"'>: In this circuit, we
      have a switch that controls the supply of current to an inductor.<span
      style='mso-spacerun:yes'>  </span>An inductor resists any changes in
      current.<span style='mso-spacerun:yes'>  </span>If you open the switch,
      the inductor tries to maintain the same current; it does this by charging
      the capacitance between the contacts of the switch.<span
      style='mso-spacerun:yes'>  </span>(Any two wires in close proximity have
      some parasitic capacitance between them.)<span style='mso-spacerun:yes'> 
      </span>There is a small capacitor (much larger than the actual value)
      across the switch terminals to simulate this.<span
      style='mso-spacerun:yes'>  </span>When you open the switch, the voltage
      goes very high; in real life, this would cause arcing.<b><o:p></o:p></b></span></li>
  <li class=MsoNormal style='mso-margin-top-alt:auto;mso-margin-bottom-alt:
      auto;mso-list:l2 level2 lfo1;tab-stops:list 1.0in'><b><span
      style='mso-fareast-font-family:"Times New Roman"'>Blocking Inductive
      Kickback</span></b><span style='mso-fareast-font-family:"Times New Roman"'>:
      shows how inductive kickback can be blocked with a “snubber” circuit.<br
      style='mso-special-character:line-break'>
      <![if !supportLineBreakNewLine]><br style='mso-special-character:line-break'>
      <![endif]><b><o:p></o:p></b></span></li>
  <li class=MsoNormal style='mso-margin-top-alt:auto;mso-margin-bottom-alt:
      auto;mso-list:l2 level2 lfo1;tab-stops:list 1.0in'><b><span
      style='mso-fareast-font-family:"Times New Roman"'><a
      href="http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/electric/powfac.html">Power
      Factor</a>: </span></b><span style='mso-fareast-font-family:"Times New Roman"'>This
      circuit shows an inductor being driven by an AC voltage.<span
      style='mso-spacerun:yes'>  </span>The colors indicate power consumption;
      red means that a component is consuming power, and green means that the
      component is contributing power.<span style='mso-spacerun:yes'> 
      </span>The left side of the circuit represents the power company’s side,
      and the right side represents a factory (with a large induction motor).<br>
      <br>
      The highly inductive load is causing the power company to work a lot
      harder than normal for a given amount of power delivered.<b><span
      style='mso-spacerun:yes'>  </span></b>The graph on the left indicates the
      power lost in the power company’s equipment (the resistor at top
      left).<span style='mso-spacerun:yes'>  </span>The graph in the middle is
      the power delivered to the factory.<span style='mso-spacerun:yes'> 
      </span>The graph on the right is the power delivered to the inductor (and
      then returned, causing the time average of power delivered to be zero).<br>
      <br>
      Even though a peak power of 40 mW is being delivered to the factory, 200
      mW is being dissipated in the power company’s wires.<span
      style='mso-spacerun:yes'>  </span>This is why power companies charge
      extra for inductive loads.<b><br style='mso-special-character:line-break'>
      <![if !supportLineBreakNewLine]><br style='mso-special-character:line-break'>
      <![endif]><o:p></o:p></b></span></li>
  <li class=MsoNormal style='mso-margin-top-alt:auto;mso-margin-bottom-alt:
      auto;mso-list:l2 level2 lfo1;tab-stops:list 1.0in'><b><span
      style='mso-fareast-font-family:"Times New Roman"'><a
      href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070602205419/http://www.ibiblio.org/obp/electricCircuits/AC/AC_11.html">Power
      Factor Correction:</a> </span></b><span style='mso-fareast-font-family:
      "Times New Roman"'>Here a capacitor has been added to the circuit,
      causing far less energy to be wasted in the power company’s wires (aside
      from an initial spike to charge the capacitor).<b><o:p></o:p></b></span></li>
  <li class=MsoNormal style='mso-margin-top-alt:auto;mso-margin-bottom-alt:
      auto;mso-list:l2 level2 lfo1;tab-stops:list 1.0in'><b><span
      style='mso-fareast-font-family:"Times New Roman"'>Resistor Grid</span></b><span
      style='mso-fareast-font-family:"Times New Roman"'>: shows current flowing
      in a two-dimensional grid of resistors.<b><o:p></o:p></b></span></li>
  <li class=MsoNormal style='mso-margin-top-alt:auto;mso-margin-bottom-alt:
      auto;mso-list:l2 level2 lfo1;tab-stops:list 1.0in'><b><span
      style='mso-fareast-font-family:"Times New Roman"'>Resistor Grid 2.<o:p></o:p></span></b></li>
  <li class=MsoNormal style='mso-margin-top-alt:auto;mso-margin-bottom-alt:
      auto;mso-list:l2 level2 lfo1;tab-stops:list 1.0in'><b><span
      style='mso-fareast-font-family:"Times New Roman"'>Coupled LC's<o:p></o:p></span></b></li>
 </ul>
</ul>

<p class=MsoNormal style='mso-margin-top-alt:auto;mso-margin-bottom-alt:auto;
margin-left:1.5in;text-indent:-.25in;mso-list:l2 level2 lfo1;tab-stops:list 1.0in'><![if !supportLists]><span
style='font-size:10.0pt;font-family:"Courier New";mso-fareast-font-family:"Courier New"'><span
style='mso-list:Ignore'>o<span style='font:7.0pt "Times New Roman"'>&nbsp;&nbsp;
</span></span></span><![endif]><b>LC Modes(2)</b>: Shows both modes of two
coupled LC circuits.<o:p></o:p></p>

<p class=MsoNormal style='mso-margin-top-alt:auto;mso-margin-bottom-alt:auto;
margin-left:1.5in;text-indent:-.25in;mso-list:l2 level2 lfo1;tab-stops:list 1.0in'><![if !supportLists]><span
style='font-size:10.0pt;font-family:"Courier New";mso-fareast-font-family:"Courier New"'><span
style='mso-list:Ignore'>o<span style='font:7.0pt "Times New Roman"'>&nbsp;&nbsp;
</span></span></span><![endif]><b>Weak Coupling.</b> <o:p></o:p></p>

<p class=MsoNormal style='mso-margin-top-alt:auto;mso-margin-bottom-alt:auto;
margin-left:1.5in;text-indent:-.25in;mso-list:l2 level2 lfo1;tab-stops:list 1.0in'><![if !supportLists]><span
style='font-size:10.0pt;font-family:"Courier New";mso-fareast-font-family:"Courier New"'><span
style='mso-list:Ignore'>o<span style='font:7.0pt "Times New Roman"'>&nbsp;&nbsp;
</span></span></span><![endif]><b>LC Modes(3)</b>: Shows all 3 modes of 3
coupled LC circuits.<o:p></o:p></p>

<p class=MsoNormal style='mso-margin-top-alt:auto;mso-margin-bottom-alt:auto;
margin-left:1.5in;text-indent:-.25in;mso-list:l2 level2 lfo1;tab-stops:list 1.0in'><![if !supportLists]><span
style='font-size:10.0pt;font-family:"Courier New";mso-fareast-font-family:"Courier New";
mso-bidi-font-weight:bold'><span style='mso-list:Ignore'>o<span
style='font:7.0pt "Times New Roman"'>&nbsp;&nbsp; </span></span></span><![endif]><b>LC
Ladder</b>: This circuit is a simple model of a transmission line.<span
style='mso-spacerun:yes'>  </span>A pulse propagates down the length of the
ladder like a wave.<span style='mso-spacerun:yes'>  </span>The resistor at the
end has a value equal to the characteristic impedance of the ladder (determined
by the ratio of L to C), which causes the wave to be absorbed.<span
style='mso-spacerun:yes'>  </span>A larger resistance or an open circuit will
cause the wave to be reflected; a smaller resistance or a short will cause the
wave to be reflected negatively.<b><span style='mso-spacerun:yes'>  </span></b>See
the Feynman Lectures 22-6, 7.<b><o:p></o:p></b></p>

<ul type=disc>
 <ul type=circle>
  <li class=MsoNormal style='mso-margin-top-alt:auto;mso-margin-bottom-alt:
      auto;mso-list:l2 level2 lfo1;tab-stops:list 1.0in'><b><span
      style='mso-fareast-font-family:"Times New Roman"'>Phase-Sequence Network:</span></b><span
      style='mso-fareast-font-family:"Times New Roman"'> This circuit generates
      a series of sine waves with a phase difference of 90°.<b><o:p></o:p></b></span></li>
  <li class=MsoNormal style='mso-margin-top-alt:auto;mso-margin-bottom-alt:
      auto;mso-list:l2 level2 lfo1;tab-stops:list 1.0in'><b><span
      style='mso-fareast-font-family:"Times New Roman"'><a
      href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lissajous_curve">Lissajous Figures</a>:
      </span></b><span style='mso-fareast-font-family:"Times New Roman"'>Just
      for fun.<b><o:p></o:p></b></span></li>
 </ul>
 <li class=MsoNormal style='mso-margin-top-alt:auto;mso-margin-bottom-alt:auto;
     mso-list:l2 level1 lfo1;tab-stops:list .5in'><b><span style='mso-fareast-font-family:
     "Times New Roman"'>Diodes</span></b><span style='mso-fareast-font-family:
     "Times New Roman"'><o:p></o:p></span></li>
 <ul type=circle>
  <li class=MsoNormal style='mso-margin-top-alt:auto;mso-margin-bottom-alt:
      auto;mso-list:l2 level2 lfo1;tab-stops:list 1.0in'><b><span
      style='mso-fareast-font-family:"Times New Roman"'>Half-Wave Rectifier</span></b><span
      style='mso-fareast-font-family:"Times New Roman"'>: This circuit removes
      the negative part of an input waveform.<o:p></o:p></span></li>
  <li class=MsoNormal style='mso-margin-top-alt:auto;mso-margin-bottom-alt:
      auto;mso-list:l2 level2 lfo1;tab-stops:list 1.0in'><b><span
      style='mso-fareast-font-family:"Times New Roman"'>Full-Wave Rectifier</span></b><span
      style='mso-fareast-font-family:"Times New Roman"'>: This circuit replaces
      a waveform with its absolute value.<b><o:p></o:p></b></span></li>
  <li class=MsoNormal style='mso-margin-top-alt:auto;mso-margin-bottom-alt:
      auto;mso-list:l2 level2 lfo1;tab-stops:list 1.0in'><b><span
      style='mso-fareast-font-family:"Times New Roman"'>Full-Wave Rectifier w/
      Filter</span></b><span style='mso-fareast-font-family:"Times New Roman"'>:
      This circuit smoothes out the rectified waveform, doing a pretty good job
      of converting AC to DC.<b><o:p></o:p></b></span></li>
  <li class=MsoNormal style='mso-margin-top-alt:auto;mso-margin-bottom-alt:
      auto;mso-list:l2 level2 lfo1;tab-stops:list 1.0in'><b><span
      style='mso-fareast-font-family:"Times New Roman"'>Diode I/V Curve</span></b><span
      style='mso-fareast-font-family:"Times New Roman"'>: This demonstrates the
      response of a diode to an applied voltage.<span
      style='mso-spacerun:yes'>  </span>The voltage source generates a sawtooth
      wave, which starts out at –800 mV and slowly rises to 800 mV, and then
      immediately drops back down again.<b><o:p></o:p></b></span></li>
  <li class=MsoNormal style='mso-margin-top-alt:auto;mso-margin-bottom-alt:
      auto;mso-list:l2 level2 lfo1;tab-stops:list 1.0in'><b><span
      style='mso-fareast-font-family:"Times New Roman"'>Diode Limiter</span></b><span
      style='mso-fareast-font-family:"Times New Roman"'>.<b><o:p></o:p></b></span></li>
  <li class=MsoNormal style='mso-margin-top-alt:auto;mso-margin-bottom-alt:
      auto;mso-list:l2 level2 lfo1;tab-stops:list 1.0in'><b><span
      style='mso-fareast-font-family:"Times New Roman"'>DC Restoration.</span></b><span
      style='mso-fareast-font-family:"Times New Roman"'><span
      style='mso-spacerun:yes'>  </span>This takes an AC signal and adds a DC
      offset, making it a positive signal.<b><o:p></o:p></b></span></li>
  <li class=MsoNormal style='mso-margin-top-alt:auto;mso-margin-bottom-alt:
      auto;mso-list:l2 level2 lfo1;tab-stops:list 1.0in'><b><span
      style='mso-fareast-font-family:"Times New Roman"'>Blocking Inductive
      Kickback</span></b><span style='mso-fareast-font-family:"Times New Roman"'>:
      shows how inductive kickback can be blocked with a diode.<b><o:p></o:p></b></span></li>
  <li class=MsoNormal style='mso-margin-top-alt:auto;mso-margin-bottom-alt:
      auto;mso-list:l2 level2 lfo1;tab-stops:list 1.0in'><b><span
      style='mso-fareast-font-family:"Times New Roman"'>Spike Generator.<o:p></o:p></span></b></li>
  <li class=MsoNormal style='mso-margin-top-alt:auto;mso-margin-bottom-alt:
      auto;mso-list:l2 level2 lfo1;tab-stops:list 1.0in'><b><span
      style='mso-fareast-font-family:"Times New Roman"'>Voltage Multipliers<o:p></o:p></span></b></li>
  <ol start=1 type=1>
   <li class=MsoNormal style='mso-margin-top-alt:auto;mso-margin-bottom-alt:
       auto;mso-list:l2 level3 lfo1;tab-stops:list 1.5in'><b><span
       style='mso-fareast-font-family:"Times New Roman"'>Voltage Doubler</span></b><span
       style='mso-fareast-font-family:"Times New Roman"'>: Doubles the voltage
       in the AC input signal (minus two diode drops), and turns it into DC.<b><o:p></o:p></b></span></li>
   <li class=MsoNormal style='mso-margin-top-alt:auto;mso-margin-bottom-alt:
       auto;mso-list:l2 level3 lfo1;tab-stops:list 1.5in'><b><span
       style='mso-fareast-font-family:"Times New Roman"'>Voltage Doubler 2<o:p></o:p></span></b></li>
   <li class=MsoNormal style='mso-margin-top-alt:auto;mso-margin-bottom-alt:
       auto;mso-list:l2 level3 lfo1;tab-stops:list 1.5in'><b><span
       style='mso-fareast-font-family:"Times New Roman"'>Voltage Tripler<o:p></o:p></span></b></li>
   <li class=MsoNormal style='mso-margin-top-alt:auto;mso-margin-bottom-alt:
       auto;mso-list:l2 level3 lfo1;tab-stops:list 1.5in'><b><span
       style='mso-fareast-font-family:"Times New Roman"'>Voltage Quadrupler<o:p></o:p></span></b></li>
  </ol>
  <li class=MsoNormal style='mso-margin-top-alt:auto;mso-margin-bottom-alt:
      auto;mso-list:l2 level2 lfo1;tab-stops:list 1.0in'><b><span
      style='mso-fareast-font-family:"Times New Roman"'><a
      href="http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/electronic/amfmdet.html#c1">AM
      Detector</a></span></b><span style='mso-fareast-font-family:"Times New Roman"'>:
      This is a “crystal radio”, an AM radio receiver with no amplifier.<span
      style='mso-spacerun:yes'>  </span>The raw antenna feed is shown in the
      first scope slot in the lower left.<span style='mso-spacerun:yes'> 
      </span>The inductor and the capacitor C1 are tuned to 3 kHz, the
      frequency shown in the lower right as “res.f”.<span
      style='mso-spacerun:yes'>  </span>This picks up the carrier wave shown in
      the middle scope slot.<span style='mso-spacerun:yes'>  </span>A diode is
      used to rectify this, and the C2 capacitor smoothes it out to generate
      the audio signal in the last scope slot (which is simply a 12 Hz sine
      wave in this example).<span style='mso-spacerun:yes'>  </span>By
      experimenting with the value of C1’s capacitance, you can pick up two
      other “stations” at 2.71 kHz and 2.43 kHz.<o:p></o:p></span></li>
  <li class=MsoNormal style='mso-margin-top-alt:auto;mso-margin-bottom-alt:
      auto;mso-list:l2 level2 lfo1;tab-stops:list 1.0in'><b><span
      style='mso-fareast-font-family:"Times New Roman"'>Triangle-to-Sine
      Converter</span></b><span style='mso-fareast-font-family:"Times New Roman"'><o:p></o:p></span></li>
 </ul>
 <li class=MsoNormal style='mso-margin-top-alt:auto;mso-margin-bottom-alt:auto;
     mso-list:l2 level1 lfo1;tab-stops:list .5in'><b><span style='mso-fareast-font-family:
     "Times New Roman"'>Transistors<o:p></o:p></span></b></li>
 <ul type=circle>
  <li class=MsoNormal style='mso-margin-top-alt:auto;mso-margin-bottom-alt:
      auto;mso-list:l2 level2 lfo1;tab-stops:list 1.0in'><b><span
      style='mso-fareast-font-family:"Times New Roman"'>Switch</span></b><span
      style='mso-fareast-font-family:"Times New Roman"'>.<b><o:p></o:p></b></span></li>
  <li class=MsoNormal style='mso-margin-top-alt:auto;mso-margin-bottom-alt:
      auto;mso-list:l2 level2 lfo1;tab-stops:list 1.0in'><b><span
      style='mso-fareast-font-family:"Times New Roman"'><a
      href="http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/electronic/npncc.html#c2">Emitter
      Follower</a>.<o:p></o:p></span></b></li>
  <li class=MsoNormal style='mso-margin-top-alt:auto;mso-margin-bottom-alt:
      auto;mso-list:l2 level2 lfo1;tab-stops:list 1.0in'><b><span
      style='mso-fareast-font-family:"Times New Roman"'><a
      href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120101214822/http://www.play-hookey.com/digital/experiments/rtl_astable.html">Astable
      Multivibrator</a></span></b><span style='mso-fareast-font-family:"Times New Roman"'>:
      A simple oscillator.<span style='mso-spacerun:yes'>  </span>The applet
      has trouble simulating this circuit, so there might be a slight delay
      every time one of the transistors switches on.<b><o:p></o:p></b></span></li>
  <li class=MsoNormal style='mso-margin-top-alt:auto;mso-margin-bottom-alt:
      auto;mso-list:l2 level2 lfo1;tab-stops:list 1.0in'><b><span
      style='mso-fareast-font-family:"Times New Roman"'><a
      href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120101214822/http://www.play-hookey.com/digital/experiments/rtl_bistable.html">Bistable
      Multivibrator</a> (Flip Flop)</span></b><span style='mso-fareast-font-family:
      "Times New Roman"'>: This circuit has two states; use the set/reset
      switches to toggle between them.<b><o:p></o:p></b></span></li>
  <li class=MsoNormal style='mso-margin-top-alt:auto;mso-margin-bottom-alt:
      auto;mso-list:l2 level2 lfo1;tab-stops:list 1.0in'><b><span
      style='mso-fareast-font-family:"Times New Roman"'><a
      href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120101214822/http://www.play-hookey.com/digital/experiments/rtl_monostable.html">Monostable
      Multivibrator</a> (One-Shot)</span></b><span style='mso-fareast-font-family:
      "Times New Roman"'>: When you hit the switch, the output will go to 1.7 V
      for a short time, and then drop back down.<b><o:p></o:p></b></span></li>
  <li class=MsoNormal style='mso-margin-top-alt:auto;mso-margin-bottom-alt:
      auto;mso-list:l2 level2 lfo1;tab-stops:list 1.0in'><b><span
      style='mso-fareast-font-family:"Times New Roman"'>Common-Emitter
      Amplifier</span></b><span style='mso-fareast-font-family:"Times New Roman"'>:
      This circuit amplifies the voltage of the input signal by about 10 times.<b><o:p></o:p></b></span></li>
  <li class=MsoNormal style='mso-margin-top-alt:auto;mso-margin-bottom-alt:
      auto;mso-list:l2 level2 lfo1;tab-stops:list 1.0in'><b><span
      style='mso-fareast-font-family:"Times New Roman"'>Unity-Gain Phase
      Splitter: </span></b><span style='mso-fareast-font-family:"Times New Roman"'>Outputs
      two signals 180° out of phase from each other.<b><o:p></o:p></b></span></li>
  <li class=MsoNormal style='mso-margin-top-alt:auto;mso-margin-bottom-alt:
      auto;mso-list:l2 level2 lfo1;tab-stops:list 1.0in'><b><span
      style='mso-fareast-font-family:"Times New Roman"'><a
      href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120101214822/http://www.play-hookey.com/digital/experiments/rtl_schmitt.html">Schmitt
      Trigger</a></span></b><span style='mso-fareast-font-family:"Times New Roman"'>.<b><o:p></o:p></b></span></li>
  <li class=MsoNormal style='mso-margin-top-alt:auto;mso-margin-bottom-alt:
      auto;mso-list:l2 level2 lfo1;tab-stops:list 1.0in'><b><span
      style='mso-fareast-font-family:"Times New Roman"'>Current Source</span></b><span
      style='mso-fareast-font-family:"Times New Roman"'>: The current is the
      same regardless of the switch position.<b><o:p></o:p></b></span></li>
  <li class=MsoNormal style='mso-margin-top-alt:auto;mso-margin-bottom-alt:
      auto;mso-list:l2 level2 lfo1;tab-stops:list 1.0in'><b><span
      style='mso-fareast-font-family:"Times New Roman"'>Current Source Ramp:</span></b><span
      style='mso-fareast-font-family:"Times New Roman"'> Uses a current source
      to generate a ramp waveform every time you hit the switch.<b><o:p></o:p></b></span></li>
  <li class=MsoNormal style='mso-margin-top-alt:auto;mso-margin-bottom-alt:
      auto;mso-list:l2 level2 lfo1;tab-stops:list 1.0in'><b><span
      style='mso-fareast-font-family:"Times New Roman"'>Current Mirror</span></b><span
      style='mso-fareast-font-family:"Times New Roman"'>: The current on the
      right is the same as the current on the left, regardless of the position
      of the right switch.<b><o:p></o:p></b></span></li>
  <li class=MsoNormal style='mso-margin-top-alt:auto;mso-margin-bottom-alt:
      auto;mso-list:l2 level2 lfo1;tab-stops:list 1.0in'><b><span
      style='mso-fareast-font-family:"Times New Roman"'>Differential Amplifiers<o:p></o:p></span></b></li>
  <ol start=1 type=1>
   <li class=MsoNormal style='mso-margin-top-alt:auto;mso-margin-bottom-alt:
       auto;mso-list:l2 level3 lfo1;tab-stops:list 1.5in'><b><span
       style='mso-fareast-font-family:"Times New Roman"'>Differential Input: </span></b><span
       style='mso-fareast-font-family:"Times New Roman"'>This circuit subtracts
       the first signal from the second and amplifies it.<b><o:p></o:p></b></span></li>
   <li class=MsoNormal style='mso-margin-top-alt:auto;mso-margin-bottom-alt:
       auto;mso-list:l2 level3 lfo1;tab-stops:list 1.5in'><b><span
       style='mso-fareast-font-family:"Times New Roman"'>Common-Mode Input:</span></b><span
       style='mso-fareast-font-family:"Times New Roman"'> This shows a
       differential amplifier with two equal inputs.<span
       style='mso-spacerun:yes'>  </span>The output should be a constant value,
       but instead the input waveforms make it through to the output
       (attenuated rather than amplified).<span style='mso-spacerun:yes'> 
       </span>(When both inputs change together, that is called “common-mode
       input”; the “common-mode rejection ratio” is the ability of a
       differential amplifier to ignore common-mode signals and amplify only
       the difference between the inputs.)<b><o:p></o:p></b></span></li>
   <li class=MsoNormal style='mso-margin-top-alt:auto;mso-margin-bottom-alt:
       auto;mso-list:l2 level3 lfo1;tab-stops:list 1.5in'><b><span
       style='mso-fareast-font-family:"Times New Roman"'>Common-Mode w/Current
       Source: </span></b><span style='mso-fareast-font-family:"Times New Roman"'>This
       is an improved differential amplifier that uses a current source as a
       load.<span style='mso-spacerun:yes'>  </span>The common-mode rejection
       ratio is very good; the circuit amplifies the small differences between
       the two inputs, and ignores the common-mode signal.<b><o:p></o:p></b></span></li>
  </ol>
  <li class=MsoNormal style='mso-margin-top-alt:auto;mso-margin-bottom-alt:
      auto;mso-list:l2 level2 lfo1;tab-stops:list 1.0in'><b><span
      style='mso-fareast-font-family:"Times New Roman"'>Push-Pull Follower: </span></b><span
      style='mso-fareast-font-family:"Times New Roman"'>This is another type of
      emitter follower.<b><o:p></o:p></b></span></li>
  <li class=MsoNormal style='mso-margin-top-alt:auto;mso-margin-bottom-alt:
      auto;mso-list:l2 level2 lfo1;tab-stops:list 1.0in'><b><span
      style='mso-fareast-font-family:"Times New Roman"'>Oscillators<o:p></o:p></span></b></li>
  <ol start=1 type=1>
   <li class=MsoNormal style='mso-margin-top-alt:auto;mso-margin-bottom-alt:
       auto;mso-list:l2 level3 lfo1;tab-stops:list 1.5in'><b><span
       style='mso-fareast-font-family:"Times New Roman"'>Colpitts Oscillator<o:p></o:p></span></b></li>
   <li class=MsoNormal style='mso-margin-top-alt:auto;mso-margin-bottom-alt:
       auto;mso-list:l2 level3 lfo1;tab-stops:list 1.5in'><b><span
       style='mso-fareast-font-family:"Times New Roman"'>Hartley Oscillator<o:p></o:p></span></b></li>
   <li class=MsoNormal style='mso-margin-top-alt:auto;mso-margin-bottom-alt:
       auto;mso-list:l2 level3 lfo1;tab-stops:list 1.5in'><b><span
       style='mso-fareast-font-family:"Times New Roman"'>Emitter-Coupled LC
       Oscillator<o:p></o:p></span></b></li>
  </ol>
 </ul>
 <li class=MsoNormal style='mso-margin-top-alt:auto;mso-margin-bottom-alt:auto;
     mso-list:l2 level1 lfo1;tab-stops:list .5in'><b><span style='mso-fareast-font-family:
     "Times New Roman"'><a
     href="http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/electronic/fet.html">JFETs</a><o:p></o:p></span></b></li>
 <ul type=circle>
  <li class=MsoNormal style='mso-margin-top-alt:auto;mso-margin-bottom-alt:
      auto;mso-list:l2 level2 lfo1;tab-stops:list 1.0in'><b><span
      style='mso-fareast-font-family:"Times New Roman"'>JFET Current Source<o:p></o:p></span></b></li>
  <li class=MsoNormal style='mso-margin-top-alt:auto;mso-margin-bottom-alt:
      auto;mso-list:l2 level2 lfo1;tab-stops:list 1.0in'><b><span
      style='mso-fareast-font-family:"Times New Roman"'>JFET Follower: </span></b><span
      style='mso-fareast-font-family:"Times New Roman"'>This is like an emitter
      follower, except that the output is 3V more positive than the input.<b><o:p></o:p></b></span></li>
  <li class=MsoNormal style='mso-margin-top-alt:auto;mso-margin-bottom-alt:
      auto;mso-list:l2 level2 lfo1;tab-stops:list 1.0in'><b><span
      style='mso-fareast-font-family:"Times New Roman"'>JFET Follower w/zero
      offset<o:p></o:p></span></b></li>
  <li class=MsoNormal style='mso-margin-top-alt:auto;mso-margin-bottom-alt:
      auto;mso-list:l2 level2 lfo1;tab-stops:list 1.0in'><b><span
      style='mso-fareast-font-family:"Times New Roman"'><a
      href="http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/electronic/fet.html#c4">Common-Source
      Amplifier</a><o:p></o:p></span></b></li>
  <li class=MsoNormal style='mso-margin-top-alt:auto;mso-margin-bottom-alt:
      auto;mso-list:l2 level2 lfo1;tab-stops:list 1.0in'><b><span
      style='mso-fareast-font-family:"Times New Roman"'>Volume Control:</span></b><span
      style='mso-fareast-font-family:"Times New Roman"'> Here the JFET is used
      like a variable resistor.<b><o:p></o:p></b></span></li>
 </ul>
 <li class=MsoNormal style='mso-margin-top-alt:auto;mso-margin-bottom-alt:auto;
     mso-list:l2 level1 lfo1;tab-stops:list .5in'><b><span style='mso-fareast-font-family:
     "Times New Roman"'><a
     href="http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/electronic/mosfet.html">MOSFETs</a><o:p></o:p></span></b></li>
 <ul type=circle>
  <li class=MsoNormal style='mso-margin-top-alt:auto;mso-margin-bottom-alt:
      auto;mso-list:l2 level2 lfo1;tab-stops:list 1.0in'><b><span
      style='mso-fareast-font-family:"Times New Roman"'><a
      href="http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/electronic/buffer.html#c3">CMOS
      Inverter</a></span></b><span style='mso-fareast-font-family:"Times New Roman"'>:
      The white “H” is a logic input.<span style='mso-spacerun:yes'> 
      </span>Click on it to toggle its state.<span style='mso-spacerun:yes'> 
      </span>“H” means “high” (5 V) and “L” means “low” (0 V).<span
      style='mso-spacerun:yes'>  </span>The output of the inverter is shown at
      right, and is the opposite of the input.<span style='mso-spacerun:yes'> 
      </span>In this (idealized) simulation, the CMOS inverter draws no current
      at all.<b><o:p></o:p></b></span></li>
  <li class=MsoNormal style='mso-margin-top-alt:auto;mso-margin-bottom-alt:
      auto;mso-list:l2 level2 lfo1;tab-stops:list 1.0in'><b><span
      style='mso-fareast-font-family:"Times New Roman"'>CMOS Inverter
      (w/capacitance)</span></b><span style='mso-fareast-font-family:"Times New Roman"'>:
      In reality, there are two reasons that CMOS gates draw current.<span
      style='mso-spacerun:yes'>  </span>This circuit demonstrates the first
      reason: capacitance between the MOSFET gate and its source and
      drain.<span style='mso-spacerun:yes'>  </span>It requires current to charge
      this capacitance, which consumes power.<span style='mso-spacerun:yes'> 
      </span>It also causes a short delay when changing state.<b><o:p></o:p></b></span></li>
  <li class=MsoNormal style='mso-margin-top-alt:auto;mso-margin-bottom-alt:
      auto;mso-list:l2 level2 lfo1;tab-stops:list 1.0in'><b><span
      style='mso-fareast-font-family:"Times New Roman"'>CMOS Inverter (slow
      transition)</span></b><span style='mso-fareast-font-family:"Times New Roman"'>:
      The other reason that CMOS gates draw current is that both transistors
      will conduct at the same time when the input is halfway between high and
      low.<span style='mso-spacerun:yes'>  </span>This causes a current spike
      when the input is in transition.<span style='mso-spacerun:yes'> 
      </span>In this circuit, there is a low-pass filter on the input which
      causes it to transition slowly, so you can see the spike.<b><o:p></o:p></b></span></li>
  <li class=MsoNormal style='mso-margin-top-alt:auto;mso-margin-bottom-alt:
      auto;mso-list:l2 level2 lfo1;tab-stops:list 1.0in'><b><span
      style='mso-fareast-font-family:"Times New Roman"'>CMOS Transmission Gate</span></b><span
      style='mso-fareast-font-family:"Times New Roman"'>: This circuit will
      pass any signal, even an analog signal (as long as it stays between 0 and
      5 V) when the gate input is “H”.<span style='mso-spacerun:yes'> 
      </span>When it’s “L”, then the gate acts as an open circuit.<b><o:p></o:p></b></span></li>
  <li class=MsoNormal style='mso-margin-top-alt:auto;mso-margin-bottom-alt:
      auto;mso-list:l2 level2 lfo1;tab-stops:list 1.0in'><b><span
      style='mso-fareast-font-family:"Times New Roman"'>CMOS Multiplexer: </span></b><span
      style='mso-fareast-font-family:"Times New Roman"'>This circuit uses two
      transmission gates to select one of two inputs.<span
      style='mso-spacerun:yes'>  </span>If the logic input is “H”, then the
      output is a 40Hz triangle wave.<span style='mso-spacerun:yes'>  </span>If
      it’s “L”, then the output is a 80Hz sine wave.<b><o:p></o:p></b></span></li>
  <li class=MsoNormal style='mso-margin-top-alt:auto;mso-margin-bottom-alt:
      auto;mso-list:l2 level2 lfo1;tab-stops:list 1.0in'><b><span
      style='mso-fareast-font-family:"Times New Roman"'>Sample-and-Hold: </span></b><span
      style='mso-fareast-font-family:"Times New Roman"'>Click and hold the
      “sample” button to sample the input.<span style='mso-spacerun:yes'> 
      </span>When you release the button, the output level will be held
      constant.<b><o:p></o:p></b></span></li>
  <li class=MsoNormal style='mso-margin-top-alt:auto;mso-margin-bottom-alt:
      auto;mso-list:l2 level2 lfo1;tab-stops:list 1.0in'><b><span
      style='mso-fareast-font-family:"Times New Roman"'>Delayed Buffer:</span></b><span
      style='mso-fareast-font-family:"Times New Roman"'> This circuit delays
      any changes in its input for 15 microseconds.<b><o:p></o:p></b></span></li>
  <li class=MsoNormal style='mso-margin-top-alt:auto;mso-margin-bottom-alt:
      auto;mso-list:l2 level2 lfo1;tab-stops:list 1.0in'><b><span
      style='mso-fareast-font-family:"Times New Roman"'>Leading-Edge Detector<o:p></o:p></span></b></li>
  <li class=MsoNormal style='mso-margin-top-alt:auto;mso-margin-bottom-alt:
      auto;mso-list:l2 level2 lfo1;tab-stops:list 1.0in'><b><span
      style='mso-fareast-font-family:"Times New Roman"'>Switchable Filter:</span></b><span
      style='mso-fareast-font-family:"Times New Roman"'> Click the “L” to
      select from two different low-pass filters.<b><o:p></o:p></b></span></li>
  <li class=MsoNormal style='mso-margin-top-alt:auto;mso-margin-bottom-alt:
      auto;mso-list:l2 level2 lfo1;tab-stops:list 1.0in'><b><span
      style='mso-fareast-font-family:"Times New Roman"'>Voltage Inverter<o:p></o:p></span></b></li>
  <li class=MsoNormal style='mso-margin-top-alt:auto;mso-margin-bottom-alt:
      auto;mso-list:l2 level2 lfo1;tab-stops:list 1.0in'><b><span
      style='mso-fareast-font-family:"Times New Roman"'>Inverter Amplifier: </span></b><span
      style='mso-fareast-font-family:"Times New Roman"'>This shows how a CMOS
      inverter can be used as an amplifier.<b><o:p></o:p></b></span></li>
  <li class=MsoNormal style='mso-margin-top-alt:auto;mso-margin-bottom-alt:
      auto;mso-list:l2 level2 lfo1;tab-stops:list 1.0in'><b><span
      style='mso-fareast-font-family:"Times New Roman"'>Inverter Oscillator<o:p></o:p></span></b></li>
 </ul>
 <li class=MsoNormal style='mso-margin-top-alt:auto;mso-margin-bottom-alt:auto;
     mso-list:l2 level1 lfo1;tab-stops:list .5in'><b><span style='mso-fareast-font-family:
     "Times New Roman"'><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Opamp">Op-Amps</a><o:p></o:p></span></b></li>
 <ul type=circle>
  <li class=MsoNormal style='mso-margin-top-alt:auto;mso-margin-bottom-alt:
      auto;mso-list:l2 level2 lfo1;tab-stops:list 1.0in'><b><span
      style='mso-fareast-font-family:"Times New Roman"'>Amplifiers<o:p></o:p></span></b></li>
  <ol start=1 type=1>
   <li class=MsoNormal style='mso-margin-top-alt:auto;mso-margin-bottom-alt:
       auto;mso-list:l2 level3 lfo1;tab-stops:list 1.5in'><b><span
       style='mso-fareast-font-family:"Times New Roman"'><a
       href="http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/electronic/opampvar.html#c2">Inverting
       Amplifier</a></span></b><span style='mso-fareast-font-family:"Times New Roman"'>:
       This one has a gain of –3.<b><o:p></o:p></b></span></li>
   <li class=MsoNormal style='mso-margin-top-alt:auto;mso-margin-bottom-alt:
       auto;mso-list:l2 level3 lfo1;tab-stops:list 1.5in'><b><span
       style='mso-fareast-font-family:"Times New Roman"'><a
       href="http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/electronic/opampvar.html#c3">Non-Inverting
       Amplifier</a></span></b><span style='mso-fareast-font-family:"Times New Roman"'><o:p></o:p></span></li>
   <li class=MsoNormal style='mso-margin-top-alt:auto;mso-margin-bottom-alt:
       auto;mso-list:l2 level3 lfo1;tab-stops:list 1.5in'><b><span
       style='mso-fareast-font-family:"Times New Roman"'><a
       href="http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/electronic/opampvar2.html#c1">Follower</a></span></b><span
       style='mso-fareast-font-family:"Times New Roman"'><o:p></o:p></span></li>
   <li class=MsoNormal style='mso-margin-top-alt:auto;mso-margin-bottom-alt:
       auto;mso-list:l2 level3 lfo1;tab-stops:list 1.5in'><b><span
       style='mso-fareast-font-family:"Times New Roman"'><a
       href="http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/electronic/opampvar6.html#c1">Differential
       Amplifier</a></span></b><span style='mso-fareast-font-family:"Times New Roman"'><o:p></o:p></span></li>
   <li class=MsoNormal style='mso-margin-top-alt:auto;mso-margin-bottom-alt:
       auto;mso-list:l2 level3 lfo1;tab-stops:list 1.5in'><b><span
       style='mso-fareast-font-family:"Times New Roman"'><a
       href="http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/electronic/opampvar5.html#c1">Summing
       Amplifier</a></span></b><span style='mso-fareast-font-family:"Times New Roman"'><o:p></o:p></span></li>
   <li class=MsoNormal style='mso-margin-top-alt:auto;mso-margin-bottom-alt:
       auto;mso-list:l2 level3 lfo1;tab-stops:list 1.5in'><b><span
       style='mso-fareast-font-family:"Times New Roman"'><a
       href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Log_amplifier">Log Amplifier</a>: </span></b><span
       style='mso-fareast-font-family:"Times New Roman"'>output is the
       (inverted) log of the input<o:p></o:p></span></li>
   <li class=MsoNormal style='mso-margin-top-alt:auto;mso-margin-bottom-alt:
       auto;mso-list:l2 level3 lfo1;tab-stops:list 1.5in'><b><span
       style='mso-fareast-font-family:"Times New Roman"'><a
       href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Switching_amplifier">Class D
       Amplifier</a></span></b><span style='mso-fareast-font-family:"Times New Roman"'><o:p></o:p></span></li>
  </ol>
  <li class=MsoNormal style='mso-margin-top-alt:auto;mso-margin-bottom-alt:
      auto;mso-list:l2 level2 lfo1;tab-stops:list 1.0in'><b><span
      style='mso-fareast-font-family:"Times New Roman"'>Oscillators</span></b><span
      style='mso-fareast-font-family:"Times New Roman"'><o:p></o:p></span></li>
  <ol start=1 type=1>
   <li class=MsoNormal style='mso-margin-top-alt:auto;mso-margin-bottom-alt:
       auto;mso-list:l2 level3 lfo1;tab-stops:list 1.5in'><b><span
       style='mso-fareast-font-family:"Times New Roman"'><a
       href="http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/electronic/square.html#c1">Relaxation
       Oscillator</a></span></b><span style='mso-fareast-font-family:"Times New Roman"'><o:p></o:p></span></li>
   <li class=MsoNormal style='mso-margin-top-alt:auto;mso-margin-bottom-alt:
       auto;mso-list:l2 level3 lfo1;tab-stops:list 1.5in'><b><span
       style='mso-fareast-font-family:"Times New Roman"'><a
       href="http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/electronic/oscphas.html">Phase-Shift
       Oscillator</a></span></b><span style='mso-fareast-font-family:"Times New Roman"'><o:p></o:p></span></li>
   <li class=MsoNormal style='mso-margin-top-alt:auto;mso-margin-bottom-alt:
       auto;mso-list:l2 level3 lfo1;tab-stops:list 1.5in'><b><span
       style='mso-fareast-font-family:"Times New Roman"'><a
       href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120101214822/http://www.play-hookey.com/analog/triangle_waveform_generator.html">Triangle
       Wave Generator</a></span></b><span style='mso-fareast-font-family:"Times New Roman"'><o:p></o:p></span></li>
   <li class=MsoNormal style='mso-margin-top-alt:auto;mso-margin-bottom-alt:
       auto;mso-list:l2 level3 lfo1;tab-stops:list 1.5in'><b><span
       style='mso-fareast-font-family:"Times New Roman"'><a
       href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120101214822/http://www.play-hookey.com/analog/sine_wave_generator.html">Sine
       Wave Generator</a></span></b><span style='mso-fareast-font-family:"Times New Roman"'><o:p></o:p></span></li>
   <li class=MsoNormal style='mso-margin-top-alt:auto;mso-margin-bottom-alt:
       auto;mso-list:l2 level3 lfo1;tab-stops:list 1.5in'><b><span
       style='mso-fareast-font-family:"Times New Roman"'><a
       href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070305103911/http://www.interq.or.jp/japan/se-inoue/e_ckt17.htm">Sawtooth Wave
       Generator</a><o:p></o:p></span></b></li>
   <li class=MsoNormal style='mso-margin-top-alt:auto;mso-margin-bottom-alt:
       auto;mso-list:l2 level3 lfo1;tab-stops:list 1.5in'><b><span
       style='mso-fareast-font-family:"Times New Roman"'>Voltage-Controlled
       Oscillator: </span></b><span style='mso-fareast-font-family:"Times New Roman"'>Here
       the frequency of oscillation depends on the input (shown in the scope on
       the left).<span style='mso-spacerun:yes'>  </span>The oscillator outputs
       a square wave and a triangle wave.<b><o:p></o:p></b></span></li>
   <li class=MsoNormal style='mso-margin-top-alt:auto;mso-margin-bottom-alt:
       auto;mso-list:l2 level3 lfo1;tab-stops:list 1.5in'><b><span
       style='mso-fareast-font-family:"Times New Roman"'><a
       href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rossler_attractor">Rossler</a> <a
       href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150705151403/http://math.arizona.edu/~ura/004/bergevin.chris/sync.html">Circuit</a><o:p></o:p></span></b></li>
  </ol>
  <li class=MsoNormal style='mso-margin-top-alt:auto;mso-margin-bottom-alt:
      auto;mso-list:l2 level2 lfo1;tab-stops:list 1.0in'><b><span
      style='mso-fareast-font-family:"Times New Roman"'>Half-Wave Rectifier</span></b><span
      style='mso-fareast-font-family:"Times New Roman"'>: An active rectifier
      that works on voltages smaller than a diode drop.<b><o:p></o:p></b></span></li>
  <li class=MsoNormal style='mso-margin-top-alt:auto;mso-margin-bottom-alt:
      auto;mso-list:l2 level2 lfo1;tab-stops:list 1.0in'><b><span
      style='mso-fareast-font-family:"Times New Roman"'>Full-Wave Rectifier<o:p></o:p></span></b></li>
  <li class=MsoNormal style='mso-margin-top-alt:auto;mso-margin-bottom-alt:
      auto;mso-list:l2 level2 lfo1;tab-stops:list 1.0in'><b><span
      style='mso-fareast-font-family:"Times New Roman"'>Peak Detector</span></b><span
      style='mso-fareast-font-family:"Times New Roman"'>: This circuit outputs
      the peak voltage of the input.<span style='mso-spacerun:yes'> 
      </span>Whenever the input voltage is higher than the output, the output
      will be adjusted upward to match.<span style='mso-spacerun:yes'> 
      </span>Press the switch marked “reset” to reset the peak voltage back to 0.<o:p></o:p></span></li>
  <li class=MsoNormal style='mso-margin-top-alt:auto;mso-margin-bottom-alt:
      auto;mso-list:l2 level2 lfo1;tab-stops:list 1.0in'><b><span
      style='mso-fareast-font-family:"Times New Roman"'><a
      href="http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/electronic/opampvar4.html#c1">Integrator</a></span></b><span
      style='mso-fareast-font-family:"Times New Roman"'><o:p></o:p></span></li>
  <li class=MsoNormal style='mso-margin-top-alt:auto;mso-margin-bottom-alt:
      auto;mso-list:l2 level2 lfo1;tab-stops:list 1.0in'><b><span
      style='mso-fareast-font-family:"Times New Roman"'><a
      href="http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/electronic/opampvar4.html#c2">Differentiator</a></span></b><span
      style='mso-fareast-font-family:"Times New Roman"'><o:p></o:p></span></li>
  <li class=MsoNormal style='mso-margin-top-alt:auto;mso-margin-bottom-alt:
      auto;mso-list:l2 level2 lfo1;tab-stops:list 1.0in'><b><span
      style='mso-fareast-font-family:"Times New Roman"'><a
      href="http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/electronic/schmitt.html">Schmitt
      Trigger</a></span></b><span style='mso-fareast-font-family:"Times New Roman"'><o:p></o:p></span></li>
  <li class=MsoNormal style='mso-margin-top-alt:auto;mso-margin-bottom-alt:
      auto;mso-list:l2 level2 lfo1;tab-stops:list 1.0in'><b><span
      style='mso-fareast-font-family:"Times New Roman"'>Negative Impedance
      Converter: </span></b><span style='mso-fareast-font-family:"Times New Roman"'>Converts
      the resistor to a “negative” resistor.<span style='mso-spacerun:yes'> 
      </span>In the first graph, note that the current is 180° out of phase
      with the voltage.<o:p></o:p></span></li>
  <li class=MsoNormal style='mso-margin-top-alt:auto;mso-margin-bottom-alt:
      auto;mso-list:l2 level2 lfo1;tab-stops:list 1.0in'><b><span
      style='mso-fareast-font-family:"Times New Roman"'><a
      href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gyrator">Gyrator</a></span></b><span
      style='mso-fareast-font-family:"Times New Roman"'>: The top circuit
      simulates the bottom circuit without using an inductor.<o:p></o:p></span></li>
  <li class=MsoNormal style='mso-margin-top-alt:auto;mso-margin-bottom-alt:
      auto;mso-list:l2 level2 lfo1;tab-stops:list 1.0in'><b><span
      style='mso-fareast-font-family:"Times New Roman"'>Capacitance Multiplier</span></b><span
      style='mso-fareast-font-family:"Times New Roman"'>: This circuit allows
      you to simulate a large capacitor with a smaller one.<span
      style='mso-spacerun:yes'>  </span>The effective capacitance of the top
      circuit is C1 x (R1/R2), and the effective resistance is R2.<o:p></o:p></span></li>
  <li class=MsoNormal style='mso-margin-top-alt:auto;mso-margin-bottom-alt:
      auto;mso-list:l2 level2 lfo1;tab-stops:list 1.0in'><b><span
      style='mso-fareast-font-family:"Times New Roman"'>Howland Current Source</span></b><span
      style='mso-fareast-font-family:"Times New Roman"'><o:p></o:p></span></li>
  <li class=MsoNormal style='mso-margin-top-alt:auto;mso-margin-bottom-alt:
      auto;mso-list:l2 level2 lfo1;tab-stops:list 1.0in'><b><span
      style='mso-fareast-font-family:"Times New Roman"'>I-to-V Converter: </span></b><span
      style='mso-fareast-font-family:"Times New Roman"'>The output voltage
      depends on the input current, which you can adjust with the switches.<b><o:p></o:p></b></span></li>
  <li class=MsoNormal style='mso-margin-top-alt:auto;mso-margin-bottom-alt:
      auto;mso-list:l2 level2 lfo1;tab-stops:list 1.0in'><b><span
      style='mso-fareast-font-family:"Times New Roman"'><a
      href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Opamp#Internal_circuitry">741
      Internals</a>:</span></b><span style='mso-fareast-font-family:"Times New Roman"'>
      The implementation of a 741 op-amp.<b><o:p></o:p></b></span></li>
 </ul>
 <li class=MsoNormal style='mso-margin-top-alt:auto;mso-margin-bottom-alt:auto;
     mso-list:l2 level1 lfo1;tab-stops:list .5in'><b><span style='mso-fareast-font-family:
     "Times New Roman"'><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/555_timer_IC">555
     Timer Chip</a><o:p></o:p></span></b></li>
 <ul type=circle>
  <li class=MsoNormal style='mso-margin-top-alt:auto;mso-margin-bottom-alt:
      auto;mso-list:l2 level2 lfo1;tab-stops:list 1.0in'><b><span
      style='mso-fareast-font-family:"Times New Roman"'>Square Wave Generator<o:p></o:p></span></b></li>
  <li class=MsoNormal style='mso-margin-top-alt:auto;mso-margin-bottom-alt:
      auto;mso-list:l2 level2 lfo1;tab-stops:list 1.0in'><b><span
      style='mso-fareast-font-family:"Times New Roman"'>Internals:</span></b><span
      style='mso-fareast-font-family:"Times New Roman"'> The implementation of
      a 555 chip, acting as a square wave oscillator<b><o:p></o:p></b></span></li>
  <li class=MsoNormal style='mso-margin-top-alt:auto;mso-margin-bottom-alt:
      auto;mso-list:l2 level2 lfo1;tab-stops:list 1.0in'><b><span
      style='mso-fareast-font-family:"Times New Roman"'>Sawtooth Oscillator<o:p></o:p></span></b></li>
  <li class=MsoNormal style='mso-margin-top-alt:auto;mso-margin-bottom-alt:
      auto;mso-list:l2 level2 lfo1;tab-stops:list 1.0in'><b><span
      style='mso-fareast-font-family:"Times New Roman"'>Low-duty-cycle Oscillator</span></b><span
      style='mso-fareast-font-family:"Times New Roman"'>: produces short
      pulses.<b><o:p></o:p></b></span></li>
  <li class=MsoNormal style='mso-margin-top-alt:auto;mso-margin-bottom-alt:
      auto;mso-list:l2 level2 lfo1;tab-stops:list 1.0in'><b><span
      style='mso-fareast-font-family:"Times New Roman"'>Monostable
      Multivibrator</span></b><span style='mso-fareast-font-family:"Times New Roman"'>:
      This is a one-shot circuit that will produce a timed pulse when you click
      the “H”.<b><o:p></o:p></b></span></li>
  <li class=MsoNormal style='mso-margin-top-alt:auto;mso-margin-bottom-alt:
      auto;mso-list:l2 level2 lfo1;tab-stops:list 1.0in'><b><span
      style='mso-fareast-font-family:"Times New Roman"'>Pulse Position
      Modulator: </span></b><span style='mso-fareast-font-family:"Times New Roman"'>Produces
      pulses whose width is proportional to the input voltage.<b><o:p></o:p></b></span></li>
  <li class=MsoNormal style='mso-margin-top-alt:auto;mso-margin-bottom-alt:
      auto;mso-list:l2 level2 lfo1;tab-stops:list 1.0in'><b><span
      style='mso-fareast-font-family:"Times New Roman"'>Schmitt Trigger<o:p></o:p></span></b></li>
  <li class=MsoNormal style='mso-margin-top-alt:auto;mso-margin-bottom-alt:
      auto;mso-list:l2 level2 lfo1;tab-stops:list 1.0in'><b><span
      style='mso-fareast-font-family:"Times New Roman"'>Missing Pulse Detector:
      </span></b><span style='mso-fareast-font-family:"Times New Roman"'>Setting
      the logic input low will turn off the square wave input.<span
      style='mso-spacerun:yes'>  </span>The missing pulse detector will detect
      the missing input and bring the output high.<b><o:p></o:p></b></span></li>
 </ul>
 <li class=MsoNormal style='mso-margin-top-alt:auto;mso-margin-bottom-alt:auto;
     mso-list:l2 level1 lfo1;tab-stops:list .5in'><b><span style='mso-fareast-font-family:
     "Times New Roman"'>Active Filters<o:p></o:p></span></b></li>
 <ul type=circle>
  <li class=MsoNormal style='mso-margin-top-alt:auto;mso-margin-bottom-alt:
      auto;mso-list:l2 level2 lfo1;tab-stops:list 1.0in'><b><span
      style='mso-fareast-font-family:"Times New Roman"'>VCVS Low-Pass Filter:</span></b><span
      style='mso-fareast-font-family:"Times New Roman"'> An active Butterworth
      low-pass filter.<b><o:p></o:p></b></span></li>
  <li class=MsoNormal style='mso-margin-top-alt:auto;mso-margin-bottom-alt:
      auto;mso-list:l2 level2 lfo1;tab-stops:list 1.0in'><b><span
      style='mso-fareast-font-family:"Times New Roman"'>VCVS High-Pass Filter<o:p></o:p></span></b></li>
  <li class=MsoNormal style='mso-margin-top-alt:auto;mso-margin-bottom-alt:
      auto;mso-list:l2 level2 lfo1;tab-stops:list 1.0in'><b><span
      style='mso-fareast-font-family:"Times New Roman"'>Switched-Capacitor
      Filter:</span></b><span style='mso-fareast-font-family:"Times New Roman"'>
      A digital filter, implemented using capacitors and analog switches.<b><o:p></o:p></b></span></li>
 </ul>
 <li class=MsoNormal style='mso-margin-top-alt:auto;mso-margin-bottom-alt:auto;
     mso-list:l2 level1 lfo1;tab-stops:list .5in'><b><span style='mso-fareast-font-family:
     "Times New Roman"'>Logic Families<o:p></o:p></span></b></li>
 <ul type=circle>
  <li class=MsoNormal style='mso-margin-top-alt:auto;mso-margin-bottom-alt:
      auto;mso-list:l2 level2 lfo1;tab-stops:list 1.0in'><b><span
      style='mso-fareast-font-family:"Times New Roman"'>RTL Logic Family<o:p></o:p></span></b></li>
  <ol start=1 type=1>
   <li class=MsoNormal style='mso-margin-top-alt:auto;mso-margin-bottom-alt:
       auto;mso-list:l2 level3 lfo1;tab-stops:list 1.5in'><b><span
       style='mso-fareast-font-family:"Times New Roman"'><a
       href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120101214822/http://www.play-hookey.com/digital/experiments/rtl_inverter.html">RTL
       Inverter</a></span></b><span style='mso-fareast-font-family:"Times New Roman"'>:
       The white “H” is a logic input.<span style='mso-spacerun:yes'> 
       </span>Click on it to toggle its state.<span style='mso-spacerun:yes'> 
       </span>“H” means “high” (3.6 V) and “L” means “low” (0 V).<span
       style='mso-spacerun:yes'>  </span>The output of the inverter is shown at
       right, and is the opposite of the input.<b><o:p></o:p></b></span></li>
   <li class=MsoNormal style='mso-margin-top-alt:auto;mso-margin-bottom-alt:
       auto;mso-list:l2 level3 lfo1;tab-stops:list 1.5in'><b><span
       style='mso-fareast-font-family:"Times New Roman"'><a
       href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120101214822/http://www.play-hookey.com/digital/experiments/rtl_nor4.html">RTL
       NOR</a></span></b><span style='mso-fareast-font-family:"Times New Roman"'>:
       The three inputs are at the bottom, and the output is to the right.<span
       style='mso-spacerun:yes'>  </span>The output is “L” if any of the inputs
       are “H”.<span style='mso-spacerun:yes'>  </span>Otherwise it’s “H”.<b><o:p></o:p></b></span></li>
   <li class=MsoNormal style='mso-margin-top-alt:auto;mso-margin-bottom-alt:
       auto;mso-list:l2 level3 lfo1;tab-stops:list 1.5in'><b><span
       style='mso-fareast-font-family:"Times New Roman"'>RTL NAND</span></b><span
       style='mso-fareast-font-family:"Times New Roman"'>: The output is “H”
       unless all three inputs are “H”, and then it’s “L”.<b><o:p></o:p></b></span></li>
  </ol>
  <li class=MsoNormal style='mso-margin-top-alt:auto;mso-margin-bottom-alt:
      auto;mso-list:l2 level2 lfo1;tab-stops:list 1.0in'><b><span
      style='mso-fareast-font-family:"Times New Roman"'>DTL Logic Family<o:p></o:p></span></b></li>
  <ol start=1 type=1>
   <li class=MsoNormal style='mso-margin-top-alt:auto;mso-margin-bottom-alt:
       auto;mso-list:l2 level3 lfo1;tab-stops:list 1.5in'><b><span
       style='mso-fareast-font-family:"Times New Roman"'><a
       href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120101214822/http://www.play-hookey.com/digital/experiments/dtl_inverter.html">DTL
       Inverter</a><o:p></o:p></span></b></li>
   <li class=MsoNormal style='mso-margin-top-alt:auto;mso-margin-bottom-alt:
       auto;mso-list:l2 level3 lfo1;tab-stops:list 1.5in'><b><span
       style='mso-fareast-font-family:"Times New Roman"'><a
       href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120101214822/http://www.play-hookey.com/digital/experiments/dtl_nand3.html">DTL
       NAND</a><o:p></o:p></span></b></li>
   <li class=MsoNormal style='mso-margin-top-alt:auto;mso-margin-bottom-alt:
       auto;mso-list:l2 level3 lfo1;tab-stops:list 1.5in'><b><span
       style='mso-fareast-font-family:"Times New Roman"'><a
       href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120101214822/http://www.play-hookey.com/digital/experiments/dtl_nor2.html">DTL
       NOR</a><o:p></o:p></span></b></li>
  </ol>
  <li class=MsoNormal style='mso-margin-top-alt:auto;mso-margin-bottom-alt:
      auto;mso-list:l2 level2 lfo1;tab-stops:list 1.0in'><b><span
      style='mso-fareast-font-family:"Times New Roman"'>TTL Logic Family<o:p></o:p></span></b></li>
  <ol start=1 type=1>
   <li class=MsoNormal style='mso-margin-top-alt:auto;mso-margin-bottom-alt:
       auto;mso-list:l2 level3 lfo1;tab-stops:list 1.5in'><b><span
       style='mso-fareast-font-family:"Times New Roman"'><a
       href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120101214822/http://www.play-hookey.com/digital/experiments/ttl_inverter.html">TTL
       Inverter</a><o:p></o:p></span></b></li>
   <li class=MsoNormal style='mso-margin-top-alt:auto;mso-margin-bottom-alt:
       auto;mso-list:l2 level3 lfo1;tab-stops:list 1.5in'><b><span
       style='mso-fareast-font-family:"Times New Roman"'>TTL NAND<o:p></o:p></span></b></li>
   <li class=MsoNormal style='mso-margin-top-alt:auto;mso-margin-bottom-alt:
       auto;mso-list:l2 level3 lfo1;tab-stops:list 1.5in'><b><span
       style='mso-fareast-font-family:"Times New Roman"'><a
       href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120101214822/http://www.play-hookey.com/digital/experiments/ttl_inverter.html">TTL
       NOR</a><o:p></o:p></span></b></li>
  </ol>
  <li class=MsoNormal style='mso-margin-top-alt:auto;mso-margin-bottom-alt:
      auto;mso-list:l2 level2 lfo1;tab-stops:list 1.0in'><b><span
      style='mso-fareast-font-family:"Times New Roman"'><a
      href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NMOS">NMOS Logic Family</a><o:p></o:p></span></b></li>
  <ol start=1 type=1>
   <li class=MsoNormal style='mso-margin-top-alt:auto;mso-margin-bottom-alt:
       auto;mso-list:l2 level3 lfo1;tab-stops:list 1.5in'><b><span
       style='mso-fareast-font-family:"Times New Roman"'>NMOS Inverter<o:p></o:p></span></b></li>
   <li class=MsoNormal style='mso-margin-top-alt:auto;mso-margin-bottom-alt:
       auto;mso-list:l2 level3 lfo1;tab-stops:list 1.5in'><b><span
       style='mso-fareast-font-family:"Times New Roman"'>NMOS Inverter 2</span></b><span
       style='mso-fareast-font-family:"Times New Roman"'>: This uses a second
       MOSFET instead of a resistor, to save space on a chip.<b><o:p></o:p></b></span></li>
   <li class=MsoNormal style='mso-margin-top-alt:auto;mso-margin-bottom-alt:
       auto;mso-list:l2 level3 lfo1;tab-stops:list 1.5in'><b><span
       style='mso-fareast-font-family:"Times New Roman"'>NMOS NAND<o:p></o:p></span></b></li>
  </ol>
  <li class=MsoNormal style='mso-margin-top-alt:auto;mso-margin-bottom-alt:
      auto;mso-list:l2 level2 lfo1;tab-stops:list 1.0in'><b><span
      style='mso-fareast-font-family:"Times New Roman"'><a
      href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120101214822/http://www.play-hookey.com/digital/electronics/cmos_gates.html">CMOS
      Logic Family</a><o:p></o:p></span></b></li>
  <ol start=1 type=1>
   <li class=MsoNormal style='mso-margin-top-alt:auto;mso-margin-bottom-alt:
       auto;mso-list:l2 level3 lfo1;tab-stops:list 1.5in'><b><span
       style='mso-fareast-font-family:"Times New Roman"'>CMOS Inverter<o:p></o:p></span></b></li>
   <li class=MsoNormal style='mso-margin-top-alt:auto;mso-margin-bottom-alt:
       auto;mso-list:l2 level3 lfo1;tab-stops:list 1.5in'><b><span
       style='mso-fareast-font-family:"Times New Roman"'>CMOS NAND<o:p></o:p></span></b></li>
   <li class=MsoNormal style='mso-margin-top-alt:auto;mso-margin-bottom-alt:
       auto;mso-list:l2 level3 lfo1;tab-stops:list 1.5in'><b><span
       style='mso-fareast-font-family:"Times New Roman"'>CMOS NOR<o:p></o:p></span></b></li>
   <li class=MsoNormal style='mso-margin-top-alt:auto;mso-margin-bottom-alt:
       auto;mso-list:l2 level3 lfo1;tab-stops:list 1.5in'><b><span
       style='mso-fareast-font-family:"Times New Roman"'>CMOS XOR<o:p></o:p></span></b></li>
   <li class=MsoNormal style='mso-margin-top-alt:auto;mso-margin-bottom-alt:
       auto;mso-list:l2 level3 lfo1;tab-stops:list 1.5in'><b><span
       style='mso-fareast-font-family:"Times New Roman"'><a
       href="http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/electronic/nandlatch.html#c1">CMOS
       Flip-Flop</a> (or latch)</span></b><span style='mso-fareast-font-family:
       "Times New Roman"'>: This circuit consists of two CMOS NAND gates.<b><o:p></o:p></b></span></li>
   <li class=MsoNormal style='mso-margin-top-alt:auto;mso-margin-bottom-alt:
       auto;mso-list:l2 level3 lfo1;tab-stops:list 1.5in'><b><span
       style='mso-fareast-font-family:"Times New Roman"'><a
       href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120101214822/http://www.play-hookey.com/digital/cmos_d_flip-flop.html">CMOS
       Master-Slave Flip-Flop</a><o:p></o:p></span></b></li>
  </ol>
  <li class=MsoNormal style='mso-margin-top-alt:auto;mso-margin-bottom-alt:
      auto;mso-list:l2 level2 lfo1;tab-stops:list 1.0in'><b><span
      style='mso-fareast-font-family:"Times New Roman"'><a
      href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120101214822/http://www.play-hookey.com/digital/electronics/ecl_gates.html">ECL
      Logic Family</a><o:p></o:p></span></b></li>
  <ol start=1 type=1>
   <li class=MsoNormal style='mso-margin-top-alt:auto;mso-margin-bottom-alt:
       auto;mso-list:l2 level3 lfo1;tab-stops:list 1.5in'><b><span
       style='mso-fareast-font-family:"Times New Roman"'>ECL NOR/OR<o:p></o:p></span></b></li>
  </ol>
  <li class=MsoNormal style='mso-margin-top-alt:auto;mso-margin-bottom-alt:
      auto;mso-list:l2 level2 lfo1;tab-stops:list 1.0in'><b><span
      style='mso-fareast-font-family:"Times New Roman"'><a
      href="http://www.google.com/patents?vid=USPAT6133754">Ternary</a>: </span></b><span
      style='mso-fareast-font-family:"Times New Roman"'>This demonstrates
      three-valued logic, where the inputs can be 0, 1, or 2 instead of H and
      L.<span style='mso-spacerun:yes'>  </span>This logic is implemented using
      MOSFETs; the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Threshold_voltage">threshold
      voltage</a> of each one is shown.<b><o:p></o:p></b></span></li>
  <ol start=1 type=1>
   <li class=MsoNormal style='mso-margin-top-alt:auto;mso-margin-bottom-alt:
       auto;mso-list:l2 level3 lfo1;tab-stops:list 1.5in'><b><span
       style='mso-fareast-font-family:"Times New Roman"'>CGAND: </span></b><span
       style='mso-fareast-font-family:"Times New Roman"'>the output is 2-X
       where X is the minimum of the two inputs.<b><o:p></o:p></b></span></li>
   <li class=MsoNormal style='mso-margin-top-alt:auto;mso-margin-bottom-alt:
       auto;mso-list:l2 level3 lfo1;tab-stops:list 1.5in'><b><span
       style='mso-fareast-font-family:"Times New Roman"'>CGOR: </span></b><span
       style='mso-fareast-font-family:"Times New Roman"'>the output is 2-X
       where X is the maximum of the two inputs.<b><o:p></o:p></b></span></li>
   <li class=MsoNormal style='mso-margin-top-alt:auto;mso-margin-bottom-alt:
       auto;mso-list:l2 level3 lfo1;tab-stops:list 1.5in'><b><span
       style='mso-fareast-font-family:"Times New Roman"'>Complement.<o:p></o:p></span></b></li>
   <li class=MsoNormal style='mso-margin-top-alt:auto;mso-margin-bottom-alt:
       auto;mso-list:l2 level3 lfo1;tab-stops:list 1.5in'><b><span
       style='mso-fareast-font-family:"Times New Roman"'>F211: </span></b><span
       style='mso-fareast-font-family:"Times New Roman"'>0 becomes 2, 1 becomes
       1, 2 becomes 1.<b><o:p></o:p></b></span></li>
   <li class=MsoNormal style='mso-margin-top-alt:auto;mso-margin-bottom-alt:
       auto;mso-list:l2 level3 lfo1;tab-stops:list 1.5in'><b><span
       style='mso-fareast-font-family:"Times New Roman"'>F220<o:p></o:p></span></b></li>
   <li class=MsoNormal style='mso-margin-top-alt:auto;mso-margin-bottom-alt:
       auto;mso-list:l2 level3 lfo1;tab-stops:list 1.5in'><b><span
       style='mso-fareast-font-family:"Times New Roman"'>F221<o:p></o:p></span></b></li>
  </ol>
 </ul>
 <li class=MsoNormal style='mso-margin-top-alt:auto;mso-margin-bottom-alt:auto;
     mso-list:l2 level1 lfo1;tab-stops:list .5in'><b><span style='mso-fareast-font-family:
     "Times New Roman"'>Combinational Logic<o:p></o:p></span></b></li>
 <ul type=circle>
  <li class=MsoNormal style='mso-margin-top-alt:auto;mso-margin-bottom-alt:
      auto;mso-list:l2 level2 lfo1;tab-stops:list 1.0in'><b><span
      style='mso-fareast-font-family:"Times New Roman"'><a
      href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120101214822/http://www.play-hookey.com/digital/xor_function.html">Exclusive OR
      (XOR)</a></span></b><span style='mso-fareast-font-family:"Times New Roman"'>
      <b><o:p></o:p></b></span></li>
  <li class=MsoNormal style='mso-margin-top-alt:auto;mso-margin-bottom-alt:
      auto;mso-list:l2 level2 lfo1;tab-stops:list 1.0in'><b><span
      style='mso-fareast-font-family:"Times New Roman"'><a
      href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120101214822/http://www.play-hookey.com/digital/adder.html">Half Adder</a><o:p></o:p></span></b></li>
  <li class=MsoNormal style='mso-margin-top-alt:auto;mso-margin-bottom-alt:
      auto;mso-list:l2 level2 lfo1;tab-stops:list 1.0in'><b><span
      style='mso-fareast-font-family:"Times New Roman"'><a
      href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120101214822/http://www.play-hookey.com/digital/adder.html">Full Adder</a><o:p></o:p></span></b></li>
  <li class=MsoNormal style='mso-margin-top-alt:auto;mso-margin-bottom-alt:
      auto;mso-list:l2 level2 lfo1;tab-stops:list 1.0in'><b><span
      style='mso-fareast-font-family:"Times New Roman"'>1-of-4 Decoder<o:p></o:p></span></b></li>
  <li class=MsoNormal style='mso-margin-top-alt:auto;mso-margin-bottom-alt:
      auto;mso-list:l2 level2 lfo1;tab-stops:list 1.0in'><b><span
      style='mso-fareast-font-family:"Times New Roman"'><a
      href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120101214822/http://www.play-hookey.com/digital/multiplexer_two_input.html">2-to-1
      Mux</a>: </span></b><span style='mso-fareast-font-family:"Times New Roman"'>This
      multiplexer uses two tri-state buffers connected to the output.<b><o:p></o:p></b></span></li>
  <li class=MsoNormal style='mso-margin-top-alt:auto;mso-margin-bottom-alt:
      auto;mso-list:l2 level2 lfo1;tab-stops:list 1.0in'><b><span
      style='mso-fareast-font-family:"Times New Roman"'>Majority Logic: </span></b><span
      style='mso-fareast-font-family:"Times New Roman"'>The output is high if a
      majority of the inputs are high.<b><o:p></o:p></b></span></li>
  <li class=MsoNormal style='mso-margin-top-alt:auto;mso-margin-bottom-alt:
      auto;mso-list:l2 level2 lfo1;tab-stops:list 1.0in'><b><span
      style='mso-fareast-font-family:"Times New Roman"'>2-Bit Comparator</span></b><span
      style='mso-fareast-font-family:"Times New Roman"'>: Tells you if the
      two-bit input A is greater than, less than, or equal to the two-bit input
      B.<b><o:p></o:p></b></span></li>
  <li class=MsoNormal style='mso-margin-top-alt:auto;mso-margin-bottom-alt:
      auto;mso-list:l2 level2 lfo1;tab-stops:list 1.0in'><b><span
      style='mso-fareast-font-family:"Times New Roman"'>7-Segment LED Decoder<o:p></o:p></span></b></li>
 </ul>
 <li class=MsoNormal style='mso-margin-top-alt:auto;mso-margin-bottom-alt:auto;
     mso-list:l2 level1 lfo1;tab-stops:list .5in'><b><span style='mso-fareast-font-family:
     "Times New Roman"'>Sequential Logic<o:p></o:p></span></b></li>
 <ul type=circle>
  <li class=MsoNormal style='mso-margin-top-alt:auto;mso-margin-bottom-alt:
      auto;mso-list:l2 level2 lfo1;tab-stops:list 1.0in'><b><span
      style='mso-fareast-font-family:"Times New Roman"'>Flip-Flops<o:p></o:p></span></b></li>
  <ol start=1 type=1>
   <li class=MsoNormal style='mso-margin-top-alt:auto;mso-margin-bottom-alt:
       auto;mso-list:l2 level3 lfo1;tab-stops:list 1.5in'><b><span
       style='mso-fareast-font-family:"Times New Roman"'><a
       href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120101214822/http://www.play-hookey.com/digital/rs_nand_latch.html">SR
       Flip-Flop</a><o:p></o:p></span></b></li>
   <li class=MsoNormal style='mso-margin-top-alt:auto;mso-margin-bottom-alt:
       auto;mso-list:l2 level3 lfo1;tab-stops:list 1.5in'><b><span
       style='mso-fareast-font-family:"Times New Roman"'><a
       href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120101214822/http://www.play-hookey.com/digital/clocked_rs_latch.html">Clocked
       SR Flip-Flop</a><o:p></o:p></span></b></li>
   <li class=MsoNormal style='mso-margin-top-alt:auto;mso-margin-bottom-alt:
       auto;mso-list:l2 level3 lfo1;tab-stops:list 1.5in'><b><span
       style='mso-fareast-font-family:"Times New Roman"'><a
       href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120101214822/http://www.play-hookey.com/digital/d_nand_flip-flop.html">Master-Slave
       Flip-Flop</a><o:p></o:p></span></b></li>
   <li class=MsoNormal style='mso-margin-top-alt:auto;mso-margin-bottom-alt:
       auto;mso-list:l2 level3 lfo1;tab-stops:list 1.5in'><b><span
       style='mso-fareast-font-family:"Times New Roman"'>Edge-Triggered D
       Flip-Flop</span></b><span style='mso-fareast-font-family:"Times New Roman"'>:
       This circuit changes state when the clock makes a positive transistion.<b><o:p></o:p></b></span></li>
  </ol>
  <li class=MsoNormal style='mso-margin-top-alt:auto;mso-margin-bottom-alt:
      auto;mso-list:l2 level2 lfo1;tab-stops:list 1.0in'><b><span
      style='mso-fareast-font-family:"Times New Roman"'>Counters<o:p></o:p></span></b></li>
  <ol start=1 type=1>
   <li class=MsoNormal style='mso-margin-top-alt:auto;mso-margin-bottom-alt:
       auto;mso-list:l2 level3 lfo1;tab-stops:list 1.5in'><b><span
       style='mso-fareast-font-family:"Times New Roman"'><a
       href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120101214822/http://www.play-hookey.com/digital/ripple_counter.html">4-Bit
       Ripple Counter</a><o:p></o:p></span></b></li>
   <li class=MsoNormal style='mso-margin-top-alt:auto;mso-margin-bottom-alt:
       auto;mso-list:l2 level3 lfo1;tab-stops:list 1.5in'><b><span
       style='mso-fareast-font-family:"Times New Roman"'>8-Bit Ripple Counter<o:p></o:p></span></b></li>
   <li class=MsoNormal style='mso-margin-top-alt:auto;mso-margin-bottom-alt:
       auto;mso-list:l2 level3 lfo1;tab-stops:list 1.5in'><b><span
       style='mso-fareast-font-family:"Times New Roman"'><a
       href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120101214822/http://www.play-hookey.com/digital/synchronous_counter.html">Synchronous
       Counter</a><o:p></o:p></span></b></li>
   <li class=MsoNormal style='mso-margin-top-alt:auto;mso-margin-bottom-alt:
       auto;mso-list:l2 level3 lfo1;tab-stops:list 1.5in'><b><span
       style='mso-fareast-font-family:"Times New Roman"'><a
       href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120101214822/http://www.play-hookey.com/digital/decimal_counter.html">Decimal
       Counter</a><o:p></o:p></span></b></li>
   <li class=MsoNormal style='mso-margin-top-alt:auto;mso-margin-bottom-alt:
       auto;mso-list:l2 level3 lfo1;tab-stops:list 1.5in'><b><span
       style='mso-fareast-font-family:"Times New Roman"'><a
       href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gray_code">Gray Code Counter</a><o:p></o:p></span></b></li>
   <li class=MsoNormal style='mso-margin-top-alt:auto;mso-margin-bottom-alt:
       auto;mso-list:l2 level3 lfo1;tab-stops:list 1.5in'><b><span
       style='mso-fareast-font-family:"Times New Roman"'><a
       href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120101214822/http://www.play-hookey.com/digital/johnson_counter.html">Johnson
       Counter</a><o:p></o:p></span></b></li>
  </ol>
  <li class=MsoNormal style='mso-margin-top-alt:auto;mso-margin-bottom-alt:
      auto;mso-list:l2 level2 lfo1;tab-stops:list 1.0in'><b><span
      style='mso-fareast-font-family:"Times New Roman"'><a
      href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120101214822/http://www.play-hookey.com/digital/frequency_dividers.html">Divide-by-2</a>:</span></b><span
      style='mso-fareast-font-family:"Times New Roman"'> Divides the input
      frequency by 2.<b><o:p></o:p></b></span></li>
  <li class=MsoNormal style='mso-margin-top-alt:auto;mso-margin-bottom-alt:
      auto;mso-list:l2 level2 lfo1;tab-stops:list 1.0in'><b><span
      style='mso-fareast-font-family:"Times New Roman"'><a
      href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120101214822/http://www.play-hookey.com/digital/frequency_dividers.html">Divide-by-3</a><o:p></o:p></span></b></li>
  <li class=MsoNormal style='mso-margin-top-alt:auto;mso-margin-bottom-alt:
      auto;mso-list:l2 level2 lfo1;tab-stops:list 1.0in'><b><span
      style='mso-fareast-font-family:"Times New Roman"'>LED Flasher: </span></b><span
      style='mso-fareast-font-family:"Times New Roman"'>This circuit uses a
      decade counter to flash some LED’s in a back and forth pattern.<b><o:p></o:p></b></span></li>
  <li class=MsoNormal style='mso-margin-top-alt:auto;mso-margin-bottom-alt:
      auto;mso-list:l2 level2 lfo1;tab-stops:list 1.0in'><b><span
      style='mso-fareast-font-family:"Times New Roman"'><a
      href="https://web.archive.org/web/20051001005653/http://ourworld.compuserve.com/homepages/Bill_Bowden/page10.htm">Traffic
      Light</a><o:p></o:p></span></b></li>
  <li class=MsoNormal style='mso-margin-top-alt:auto;mso-margin-bottom-alt:
      auto;mso-list:l2 level2 lfo1;tab-stops:list 1.0in'><b><span
      style='mso-fareast-font-family:"Times New Roman"'>Dynamic RAM:</span></b><span
      style='mso-fareast-font-family:"Times New Roman"'> This is a simple model
      of a dynamic RAM chip.<span style='mso-spacerun:yes'>  </span>To read
      from the chip, select the bit you want using the row select lines.<span
      style='mso-spacerun:yes'>  </span>To write, select the data bit you want
      to write, and click the “write” switch.<span style='mso-spacerun:yes'> 
      </span>To refresh a bit, click the “refresh” switch.<b><o:p></o:p></b></span></li>
 </ul>
 <li class=MsoNormal style='mso-margin-top-alt:auto;mso-margin-bottom-alt:auto;
     mso-list:l2 level1 lfo1;tab-stops:list .5in'><b><span style='mso-fareast-font-family:
     "Times New Roman"'>Analog/Digital<o:p></o:p></span></b></li>
 <ul type=circle>
  <li class=MsoNormal style='mso-margin-top-alt:auto;mso-margin-bottom-alt:
      auto;mso-list:l2 level2 lfo1;tab-stops:list 1.0in'><b><span
      style='mso-fareast-font-family:"Times New Roman"'><a
      href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Analog-to-digital_converter#ADC_structures">Flash
      ADC</a>:</span></b><span style='mso-fareast-font-family:"Times New Roman"'>
      This is a direct-conversion, or “flash” analog-to-digital converter.<b><o:p></o:p></b></span></li>
  <li class=MsoNormal style='mso-margin-top-alt:auto;mso-margin-bottom-alt:
      auto;mso-list:l2 level2 lfo1;tab-stops:list 1.0in'><b><span
      style='mso-fareast-font-family:"Times New Roman"'><a
      href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Delta-sigma_modulation">Delta-Sigma
      ADC</a><o:p></o:p></span></b></li>
  <li class=MsoNormal style='mso-margin-top-alt:auto;mso-margin-bottom-alt:
      auto;mso-list:l2 level2 lfo1;tab-stops:list 1.0in'><b><span
      style='mso-fareast-font-family:"Times New Roman"'><a
      href="https://www.maximintegrated.com/en/design/technical-documents/tutorials/1/1023.html">Half-Flash
      (Subranging) ADC</a>: </span></b><span style='mso-fareast-font-family:
      "Times New Roman"'>Also known as a pipeline ADC.<span
      style='mso-spacerun:yes'>  </span>The first stage converts the input
      voltage to a four-bit digital value.<span style='mso-spacerun:yes'> 
      </span>Then, a DAC converts these four bits to analog, and then a
      comparator calculates the difference between this and the input voltage.<span
      style='mso-spacerun:yes'>  </span>Another ADC converts this to digital,
      giving a total of eight bits. <b><o:p></o:p></b></span></li>
  <li class=MsoNormal style='mso-margin-top-alt:auto;mso-margin-bottom-alt:
      auto;mso-list:l2 level2 lfo1;tab-stops:list 1.0in'><b><span
      style='mso-fareast-font-family:"Times New Roman"'><a
      href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_to_analog_converter#DAC_types">Binary-Weighted
      DAC</a></span></b><span style='mso-fareast-font-family:"Times New Roman"'>:<span
      style='mso-spacerun:yes'>  </span>Converts a four-bit binary number to a
      negative voltage.<b><o:p></o:p></b></span></li>
  <li class=MsoNormal style='mso-margin-top-alt:auto;mso-margin-bottom-alt:
      auto;mso-list:l2 level2 lfo1;tab-stops:list 1.0in'><b><span
      style='mso-fareast-font-family:"Times New Roman"'><a
      href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_to_analog_converter#DAC_types">R-2R
      Ladder DAC</a><o:p></o:p></span></b></li>
  <li class=MsoNormal style='mso-margin-top-alt:auto;mso-margin-bottom-alt:
      auto;mso-list:l2 level2 lfo1;tab-stops:list 1.0in'><b><span
      style='mso-fareast-font-family:"Times New Roman"'>Switch Tree DAC<o:p></o:p></span></b></li>
  <li class=MsoNormal style='mso-margin-top-alt:auto;mso-margin-bottom-alt:
      auto;mso-list:l2 level2 lfo1;tab-stops:list 1.0in'><b><span
      style='mso-fareast-font-family:"Times New Roman"'>Digital Sine Wave<o:p></o:p></span></b></li>
 </ul>
 <li class=MsoNormal style='mso-margin-top-alt:auto;mso-margin-bottom-alt:auto;
     mso-list:l2 level1 lfo1;tab-stops:list .5in'><b><span style='mso-fareast-font-family:
     "Times New Roman"'><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PLL">Phase-Locked
     Loops</a><o:p></o:p></span></b></li>
 <ul type=circle>
  <li class=MsoNormal style='mso-margin-top-alt:auto;mso-margin-bottom-alt:
      auto;mso-list:l2 level2 lfo1;tab-stops:list 1.0in'><b><span
      style='mso-fareast-font-family:"Times New Roman"'>XOR Phase Detector:</span></b><span
      style='mso-fareast-font-family:"Times New Roman"'> Shows an XOR gate
      being used as a type I phase detector.<span style='mso-spacerun:yes'> 
      </span>The output is high whenever the two input signals are not in
      phase.<b><o:p></o:p></b></span></li>
  <li class=MsoNormal style='mso-margin-top-alt:auto;mso-margin-bottom-alt:
      auto;mso-list:l2 level2 lfo1;tab-stops:list 1.0in'><b><span
      style='mso-fareast-font-family:"Times New Roman"'><a
      href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080701001734/http://www.uoguelph.ca/~antoon/gadgets/pll/pll.html">Type I PLL</a>:</span></b><span
      style='mso-fareast-font-family:"Times New Roman"'> This phase-locked loop
      circuit consists of an XOR gate (the phase detector), a low-pass filter
      (the resistor and capacitor), a follower (the op-amp), and a voltage-controlled
      oscillator chip.<span style='mso-spacerun:yes'>  </span>The
      voltage-controlled oscillator outputs a frequency proportional to the
      input voltage.<span style='mso-spacerun:yes'>  </span>After the PLL
      circuit locks onto the input frequency, the output frequency will be the
      same as the input frequency (with a small phase delay).<b><o:p></o:p></b></span></li>
  <li class=MsoNormal style='mso-margin-top-alt:auto;mso-margin-bottom-alt:
      auto;mso-list:l2 level2 lfo1;tab-stops:list 1.0in'><b><span
      style='mso-fareast-font-family:"Times New Roman"'>Phase Comparator (Type
      II): </span></b><span style='mso-fareast-font-family:"Times New Roman"'>Shows
      a more sophisticated phase detector, which has no output when the inputs
      are in phase, but outputs high (5V) when input 1 is leading input 2, and
      low (0V) when input 2 is leading input 1.<span style='mso-spacerun:yes'> 
      </span>The phase comparator and VCO in this applet are based on the <a
      href="http://www.fairchildsemi.com/pf/MM/MM74HC4046.html">4046 chip</a>.<b><o:p></o:p></b></span></li>
  <li class=MsoNormal style='mso-margin-top-alt:auto;mso-margin-bottom-alt:
      auto;mso-list:l2 level2 lfo1;tab-stops:list 1.0in'><b><span
      style='mso-fareast-font-family:"Times New Roman"'>Phase Comparator
      Internals.<o:p></o:p></span></b></li>
  <li class=MsoNormal style='mso-margin-top-alt:auto;mso-margin-bottom-alt:
      auto;mso-list:l2 level2 lfo1;tab-stops:list 1.0in'><b><span
      style='mso-fareast-font-family:"Times New Roman"'>Type II PLL: </span></b><span
      style='mso-fareast-font-family:"Times New Roman"'>Shows a phase-locked
      loop with a type II phase detector.<span style='mso-spacerun:yes'> 
      </span>If you adjust the input frequency, the output should lock onto it
      in a short time.<b><o:p></o:p></b></span></li>
  <li class=MsoNormal style='mso-margin-top-alt:auto;mso-margin-bottom-alt:
      auto;mso-list:l2 level2 lfo1;tab-stops:list 1.0in'><b><span
      style='mso-fareast-font-family:"Times New Roman"'>Type II PLL (fast):</span></b><span
      style='mso-fareast-font-family:"Times New Roman"'> Just a faster
      simulation of the type II PLL.<b><o:p></o:p></b></span></li>
  <li class=MsoNormal style='mso-margin-top-alt:auto;mso-margin-bottom-alt:
      auto;mso-list:l2 level2 lfo1;tab-stops:list 1.0in'><b><span
      style='mso-fareast-font-family:"Times New Roman"'>Frequency Doubler<o:p></o:p></span></b></li>
 </ul>
 <li class=MsoNormal style='mso-margin-top-alt:auto;mso-margin-bottom-alt:auto;
     mso-list:l2 level1 lfo1;tab-stops:list .5in'><b><span style='mso-fareast-font-family:
     "Times New Roman"'><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transmission_line">Transmission
     Lines</a><o:p></o:p></span></b></li>
 <ul type=circle>
  <li class=MsoNormal style='mso-margin-top-alt:auto;mso-margin-bottom-alt:
      auto;mso-list:l2 level2 lfo1;tab-stops:list 1.0in'><b><span
      style='mso-fareast-font-family:"Times New Roman"'>Simple TL: </span></b><span
      style='mso-fareast-font-family:"Times New Roman"'>A properly terminated
      transmission line, showing the delay as the signal travels down the line.<b><o:p></o:p></b></span></li>
  <li class=MsoNormal style='mso-margin-top-alt:auto;mso-margin-bottom-alt:
      auto;mso-list:l2 level2 lfo1;tab-stops:list 1.0in'><b><span
      style='mso-fareast-font-family:"Times New Roman"'>Standing Wave: </span></b><span
      style='mso-fareast-font-family:"Times New Roman"'>A standing wave on a
      shorted transmission line.<b><o:p></o:p></b></span></li>
  <li class=MsoNormal style='mso-margin-top-alt:auto;mso-margin-bottom-alt:
      auto;mso-list:l2 level2 lfo1;tab-stops:list 1.0in'><b><span
      style='mso-fareast-font-family:"Times New Roman"'>Termination: </span></b><span
      style='mso-fareast-font-family:"Times New Roman"'>The top line is
      terminated properly, but the others are not, and so the incoming wave is
      reflected.<b><o:p></o:p></b></span></li>
  <li class=MsoNormal style='mso-margin-top-alt:auto;mso-margin-bottom-alt:
      auto;mso-list:l2 level2 lfo1;tab-stops:list 1.0in'><b><span
      style='mso-fareast-font-family:"Times New Roman"'>Mismatched lines: </span></b><span
      style='mso-fareast-font-family:"Times New Roman"'>Shows reflections
      caused by the middle line having a different impedance than the other two
      lines.<b><o:p></o:p></b></span></li>
  <li class=MsoNormal style='mso-margin-top-alt:auto;mso-margin-bottom-alt:
      auto;mso-list:l2 level2 lfo1;tab-stops:list 1.0in'><b><span
      style='mso-fareast-font-family:"Times New Roman"'>Mismatched lines 2: </span></b><span
      style='mso-fareast-font-family:"Times New Roman"'>Shows a standing wave
      on the first line, caused by the second line having a different
      impedance.<b><o:p></o:p></b></span></li>
 </ul>
</ul>
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